{ "dataset": "Heads of State, Colonial Administrations and Precolonial Polities of Africa's 54 Countries, 1800 to Present", "version": "1.0.0", "publisher": "Provenance Africa", "creator": "Princewill Ubani", "license": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "source": "https://provenanceafrica.com/history/leaders-map/", "rows": [ { "id": "algeria-1800-ottoman-empire-regency-of-algiers", "country": "algeria", "country_name": "Algeria", "name": "Ottoman Empire (Regency of Algiers)", "title": "Semi-autonomous Ottoman regency (Dey of Algiers)", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1830, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1830", "type": "Ottoman regency", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "algeria-1830-contested-frontier-french-conquest-vs-abd-al-qadir-resistanc", "country": "algeria", "country_name": "Algeria", "name": "Contested frontier: French conquest vs Abd al-Qadir resistance", "title": "French invasion and Algerian armed resistance", "start_year": 1830, "end_year": 1847, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "5 Jul 1830", "raw_end": "23 Dec 1847", "type": "Colonial conquest/annexation", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "algeria-1847-france", "country": "algeria", "country_name": "Algeria", "name": "France", "title": "Colonial rule (part of French Algeria)", "start_year": 1847, "end_year": 1962, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1847", "raw_end": "1962", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "algeria-1962-abderrahmane-fares", "country": "algeria", "country_name": "Algeria", "name": "Abderrahmane Farès", "title": "Chairman, Provisional Executive", "start_year": 1962, "end_year": 1962, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "13 Apr 1962", "raw_end": "25 Sep 1962", "type": "Transitional", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "algeria-1962-ferhat-abbas", "country": "algeria", "country_name": "Algeria", "name": "Ferhat Abbas", "title": "President, National Constituent Assembly (head of state)", "start_year": 1962, "end_year": 1963, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "25 Sep 1962", "raw_end": "15 Sep 1963", "type": "Transitional/Appointed", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "algeria-1963-ahmed-ben-bella", "country": "algeria", "country_name": "Algeria", "name": "Ahmed Ben Bella", "title": "President", "start_year": 1963, "end_year": 1965, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "15 Sep 1963", "raw_end": "19 Jun 1965", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "algeria-1965-houari-boumediene", "country": "algeria", "country_name": "Algeria", "name": "Houari Boumédiène", "title": "President (Chairman, Revolutionary Council 1965-76)", "start_year": 1965, "end_year": 1978, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "19 Jun 1965", "raw_end": "27 Dec 1978", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "algeria-1978-rabah-bitat", "country": "algeria", "country_name": "Algeria", "name": "Rabah Bitat", "title": "Acting President", "start_year": 1978, "end_year": 1979, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "27 Dec 1978", "raw_end": "9 Feb 1979", "type": "Succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "algeria-1979-chadli-bendjedid", "country": "algeria", "country_name": "Algeria", "name": "Chadli Bendjedid", "title": "President", "start_year": 1979, "end_year": 1992, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1979", "raw_end": "1992", "type": "Elected (single-party)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "algeria-1992-abdelmalek-benhabyles", "country": "algeria", "country_name": "Algeria", "name": "Abdelmalek Benhabyles", "title": "Acting Chairman, High Council of State", "start_year": 1992, "end_year": 1992, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "11 Jan 1992", "raw_end": "14 Jan 1992", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "algeria-1992-mohamed-boudiaf", "country": "algeria", "country_name": "Algeria", "name": "Mohamed Boudiaf", "title": "Chairman, High Council of State", "start_year": 1992, "end_year": 1992, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "14 Jan 1992", "raw_end": "29 Jun 1992", "type": "Assassinated", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "algeria-1992-ali-kafi", "country": "algeria", "country_name": "Algeria", "name": "Ali Kafi", "title": "Chairman, High Council of State", "start_year": 1992, "end_year": 1994, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1992", "raw_end": "1994", "type": "Succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "algeria-1994-liamine-zeroual", "country": "algeria", "country_name": "Algeria", "name": "Liamine Zéroual", "title": "President", "start_year": 1994, "end_year": 1999, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1994", "raw_end": "1999", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "algeria-1999-abdelaziz-bouteflika", "country": "algeria", "country_name": "Algeria", "name": "Abdelaziz Bouteflika", "title": "President", "start_year": 1999, "end_year": 2019, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "27 Apr 1999", "raw_end": "2 Apr 2019", "type": "Elected/resigned", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "algeria-2019-abdelkader-bensalah", "country": "algeria", "country_name": "Algeria", "name": "Abdelkader Bensalah", "title": "Acting President", "start_year": 2019, "end_year": 2019, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "Apr 2019", "raw_end": "Dec 2019", "type": "Succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "algeria-2019-abdelmadjid-tebboune", "country": "algeria", "country_name": "Algeria", "name": "Abdelmadjid Tebboune", "title": "President", "start_year": 2019, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "19 Dec 2019", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "angola-1800-fragmented-kongo-ndongo-and-matamba-successor-states-ovimbun", "country": "angola", "country_name": "Angola", "name": "Fragmented: Kongo, Ndongo and Matamba successor states, Ovimbundu highland kingdoms", "title": "Multiple polities, no central authority", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1850, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1850", "type": "Decentralized, multiple polities", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "angola-1850-fragmented-ovimbundu-highland-kingdoms-and-declining-kongo-n", "country": "angola", "country_name": "Angola", "name": "Fragmented: Ovimbundu highland kingdoms and declining Kongo, Ndongo and Matamba successor states", "title": "Multiple polities, expanding but incomplete Portuguese reach", "start_year": 1850, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1850", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Decentralized, multiple polities", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "angola-1900-portugal-angola", "country": "angola", "country_name": "Angola", "name": "Portugal (Angola)", "title": "Colonial rule", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1975, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1975", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "angola-1975-agostinho-neto", "country": "angola", "country_name": "Angola", "name": "Agostinho Neto", "title": "President", "start_year": 1975, "end_year": 1979, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "11 Nov 1975", "raw_end": "10 Sep 1979", "type": "Died in office", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "angola-1979-jose-eduardo-dos-santos", "country": "angola", "country_name": "Angola", "name": "José Eduardo dos Santos", "title": "President", "start_year": 1979, "end_year": 2017, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "21 Sep 1979", "raw_end": "26 Sep 2017", "type": "Voluntary resignation", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "angola-2017-joao-lourenco", "country": "angola", "country_name": "Angola", "name": "João Lourenço", "title": "President", "start_year": 2017, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "26 Sep 2017", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "benin-1800-kingdom-of-dahomey-oyo-tributary", "country": "benin", "country_name": "Benin", "name": "Kingdom of Dahomey (Oyo tributary)", "title": "Fon kingdom under Oyo overlordship", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1823, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1823", "type": "Precolonial kingdom (tributary)", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "benin-1823-kingdom-of-dahomey-independent", "country": "benin", "country_name": "Benin", "name": "Kingdom of Dahomey (independent)", "title": "Fon kingdom", "start_year": 1823, "end_year": 1894, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1823", "raw_end": "1894", "type": "Precolonial kingdom", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "benin-1894-france-dahomey-protectorate-puppet-monarchy", "country": "benin", "country_name": "Benin", "name": "France (Dahomey protectorate, puppet monarchy)", "title": "French protectorate under installed king", "start_year": 1894, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1894", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Colonial conquest/protectorate", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "benin-1900-france-french-dahomey", "country": "benin", "country_name": "Benin", "name": "France (French Dahomey)", "title": "Colonial rule (French Dahomey, part of French West Africa)", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1960, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1960", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "benin-1960-hubert-maga", "country": "benin", "country_name": "Benin", "name": "Hubert Maga", "title": "President", "start_year": 1960, "end_year": 1963, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1 Aug 1960", "raw_end": "Oct 1963", "type": "Elected/coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "benin-1963-christophe-soglo", "country": "benin", "country_name": "Benin", "name": "Christophe Soglo", "title": "Head of the provisional government", "start_year": 1963, "end_year": 1964, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "28 Oct 1963", "raw_end": "25 Jan 1964", "type": "Military takeover / handed over", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "benin-1964-sourou-migan-apithy", "country": "benin", "country_name": "Benin", "name": "Sourou-Migan Apithy", "title": "President", "start_year": 1964, "end_year": 1965, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "25 Jan 1964", "raw_end": "Nov 1965", "type": "Resigned", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "benin-1965-tahirou-congacou", "country": "benin", "country_name": "Benin", "name": "Tahirou Congacou", "title": "Acting head of state", "start_year": 1965, "end_year": 1965, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "29 Nov 1965", "raw_end": "22 Dec 1965", "type": "Interim / deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "benin-1965-christophe-soglo", "country": "benin", "country_name": "Benin", "name": "Christophe Soglo", "title": "President", "start_year": 1965, "end_year": 1967, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "22 Dec 1965", "raw_end": "17 Dec 1967", "type": "Coup / deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "benin-1967-maurice-kouandete", "country": "benin", "country_name": "Benin", "name": "Maurice Kouandété", "title": "Head of state after the December 1967 coup", "start_year": 1967, "end_year": 1967, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "Dec 1967", "raw_end": "21 Dec 1967", "type": "Coup / handed over", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "benin-1967-alphonse-alley", "country": "benin", "country_name": "Benin", "name": "Alphonse Alley", "title": "Head of state", "start_year": 1967, "end_year": 1968, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "21 Dec 1967", "raw_end": "17 Jul 1968", "type": "Military / handed over", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "benin-1968-emile-derlin-zinsou", "country": "benin", "country_name": "Benin", "name": "Émile Derlin Zinsou", "title": "President", "start_year": 1968, "end_year": 1969, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "17 Jul 1968", "raw_end": "10 Dec 1969", "type": "Deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "benin-1969-maurice-kouandete", "country": "benin", "country_name": "Benin", "name": "Maurice Kouandété", "title": "Army chief of staff, acting head of state", "start_year": 1969, "end_year": 1969, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "10 Dec 1969", "raw_end": "13 Dec 1969", "type": "Coup / handed over", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "benin-1969-paul-emile-de-souza", "country": "benin", "country_name": "Benin", "name": "Paul-Émile de Souza", "title": "President of the Directory", "start_year": 1969, "end_year": 1970, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "Dec 1969", "raw_end": "7 May 1970", "type": "Directory / handed over", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "benin-1970-hubert-maga", "country": "benin", "country_name": "Benin", "name": "Hubert Maga", "title": "Chairman of the Presidential Council", "start_year": 1970, "end_year": 1972, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "7 May 1970", "raw_end": "7 May 1972", "type": "Collective / rotating chair", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "benin-1972-justin-ahomadegbe-tometin", "country": "benin", "country_name": "Benin", "name": "Justin Ahomadégbé-Tomêtin", "title": "Chairman of the Presidential Council", "start_year": 1972, "end_year": 1972, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "7 May 1972", "raw_end": "26 Oct 1972", "type": "Collective / deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "benin-1972-mathieu-kerekou", "country": "benin", "country_name": "Benin", "name": "Mathieu Kérékou", "title": "President (head of the People's Republic of Benin from 1975)", "start_year": 1972, "end_year": 1991, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "26 Oct 1972", "raw_end": "4 Apr 1991", "type": "Coup / lost election", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "benin-1991-nicephore-soglo", "country": "benin", "country_name": "Benin", "name": "Nicéphore Soglo", "title": "President", "start_year": 1991, "end_year": 1996, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "4 April 1991", "raw_end": "4 April 1996", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "benin-1996-mathieu-kerekou", "country": "benin", "country_name": "Benin", "name": "Mathieu Kérékou", "title": "President", "start_year": 1996, "end_year": 2006, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "4 April 1996", "raw_end": "6 April 2006", "type": "Elected (return to power)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "benin-2006-thomas-boni-yayi", "country": "benin", "country_name": "Benin", "name": "Thomas Boni Yayi", "title": "President", "start_year": 2006, "end_year": 2016, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "6 April 2006", "raw_end": "6 April 2016", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "benin-2016-patrice-talon", "country": "benin", "country_name": "Benin", "name": "Patrice Talon", "title": "President", "start_year": 2016, "end_year": 2026, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "6 April 2016", "raw_end": "24 May 2026", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "benin-2026-romuald-wadagni", "country": "benin", "country_name": "Benin", "name": "Romuald Wadagni", "title": "President", "start_year": 2026, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "24 May 2026", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "botswana-1800-fragmented-independent-tswana-chiefdoms-bangwato-bakwena-ban", "country": "botswana", "country_name": "Botswana", "name": "Fragmented: independent Tswana chiefdoms (Bangwato, Bakwena, Bangwaketse, Batawana)", "title": "Multiple independent Tswana merafe", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1885, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1885", "type": "Decentralized, multiple chiefdoms", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "botswana-1885-tswana-chiefdoms-under-british-protection", "country": "botswana", "country_name": "Botswana", "name": "Tswana chiefdoms under British protection", "title": "Bechuanaland Protectorate declared, chiefly autonomy retained", "start_year": 1885, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1885", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Protectorate, indirect rule", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "botswana-1900-united-kingdom-bechuanaland-protectorate", "country": "botswana", "country_name": "Botswana", "name": "United Kingdom (Bechuanaland Protectorate)", "title": "Colonial rule (Bechuanaland Protectorate)", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1966, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1966", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "botswana-1966-seretse-khama", "country": "botswana", "country_name": "Botswana", "name": "Seretse Khama", "title": "President", "start_year": 1966, "end_year": 1980, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "30 Sep 1966", "raw_end": "13 Jul 1980", "type": "Died in office", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "botswana-1980-quett-masire", "country": "botswana", "country_name": "Botswana", "name": "Quett Masire", "title": "President", "start_year": 1980, "end_year": 1998, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "18 Jul 1980", "raw_end": "31 Mar 1998", "type": "Voluntary resignation", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "botswana-1998-festus-mogae", "country": "botswana", "country_name": "Botswana", "name": "Festus Mogae", "title": "President", "start_year": 1998, "end_year": 2008, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1 Apr 1998", "raw_end": "1 Apr 2008", "type": "Term-limited", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "botswana-2008-ian-khama", "country": "botswana", "country_name": "Botswana", "name": "Ian Khama", "title": "President", "start_year": 2008, "end_year": 2018, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1 Apr 2008", "raw_end": "1 Apr 2018", "type": "Term-limited", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "botswana-2018-mokgweetsi-masisi", "country": "botswana", "country_name": "Botswana", "name": "Mokgweetsi Masisi", "title": "President", "start_year": 2018, "end_year": 2024, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1 Apr 2018", "raw_end": "1 Nov 2024", "type": "Lost election", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "botswana-2024-duma-boko", "country": "botswana", "country_name": "Botswana", "name": "Duma Boko", "title": "President", "start_year": 2024, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "1 Nov 2024", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burkina-faso-1800-fragmented-mossi-kingdoms-ouagadougou-yatenga-tenkodogo-gour", "country": "burkina-faso", "country_name": "Burkina Faso", "name": "Fragmented: Mossi Kingdoms (Ouagadougou, Yatenga, Tenkodogo, Gourma)", "title": "Independent Mossi kingdoms", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1896, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1896", "type": "Fragmented kingdoms", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burkina-faso-1896-france-conquest-of-the-mossi-kingdoms", "country": "burkina-faso", "country_name": "Burkina Faso", "name": "France (conquest of the Mossi kingdoms)", "title": "French military conquest and protectorate", "start_year": 1896, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1896", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Colonial conquest/protectorate", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burkina-faso-1900-france-upper-volta", "country": "burkina-faso", "country_name": "Burkina Faso", "name": "France (Upper Volta)", "title": "Colonial rule (Upper Volta, part of French West Africa)", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1960, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1960", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burkina-faso-1960-maurice-yameogo", "country": "burkina-faso", "country_name": "Burkina Faso", "name": "Maurice Yaméogo", "title": "President", "start_year": 1960, "end_year": 1966, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1960", "raw_end": "1966", "type": "Deposed", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burkina-faso-1966-sangoule-lamizana", "country": "burkina-faso", "country_name": "Burkina Faso", "name": "Sangoulé Lamizana", "title": "President", "start_year": 1966, "end_year": 1980, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "Jan 1966", "raw_end": "25 Nov 1980", "type": "Coup/deposed", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burkina-faso-1980-saye-zerbo", "country": "burkina-faso", "country_name": "Burkina Faso", "name": "Saye Zerbo", "title": "President (Military Committee of Recovery for National Progress)", "start_year": 1980, "end_year": 1982, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "25 Nov 1980", "raw_end": "7 Nov 1982", "type": "Coup / deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burkina-faso-1982-jean-baptiste-ouedraogo", "country": "burkina-faso", "country_name": "Burkina Faso", "name": "Jean-Baptiste Ouédraogo", "title": "Chairman, Provisional Committee of Popular Salvation", "start_year": 1982, "end_year": 1983, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "Nov 1982", "raw_end": "4 Aug 1983", "type": "Coup / deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burkina-faso-1983-thomas-sankara", "country": "burkina-faso", "country_name": "Burkina Faso", "name": "Thomas Sankara", "title": "Chairman, National Revolutionary Council, then President", "start_year": 1983, "end_year": 1987, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "4 Aug 1983", "raw_end": "15 Oct 1987", "type": "Coup/assassinated", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burkina-faso-1987-blaise-compaore", "country": "burkina-faso", "country_name": "Burkina Faso", "name": "Blaise Compaoré", "title": "President", "start_year": 1987, "end_year": 2014, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1987", "raw_end": "2014", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burkina-faso-2014-honore-traore", "country": "burkina-faso", "country_name": "Burkina Faso", "name": "Honoré Traoré", "title": "Head of State (interim, military)", "start_year": 2014, "end_year": 2014, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "31 October 2014", "raw_end": "1 November 2014", "type": "Military self-declaration", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burkina-faso-2014-yacouba-isaac-zida", "country": "burkina-faso", "country_name": "Burkina Faso", "name": "Yacouba Isaac Zida", "title": "Head of State (transitional, military)", "start_year": 2014, "end_year": 2014, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1 November 2014", "raw_end": "18 November 2014", "type": "Military takeover", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burkina-faso-2014-michel-kafando", "country": "burkina-faso", "country_name": "Burkina Faso", "name": "Michel Kafando", "title": "Transitional President", "start_year": 2014, "end_year": 2015, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "18 November 2014", "raw_end": "17 September 2015", "type": "Transitional appointment / ousted by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burkina-faso-2015-gilbert-diendere", "country": "burkina-faso", "country_name": "Burkina Faso", "name": "Gilbert Diendéré", "title": "Head of State (coup leader, self-declared)", "start_year": 2015, "end_year": 2015, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "17 September 2015", "raw_end": "23 September 2015", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burkina-faso-2015-cherif-sy", "country": "burkina-faso", "country_name": "Burkina Faso", "name": "Chérif Sy", "title": "Acting President (rival claim, legislative)", "start_year": 2015, "end_year": 2015, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "17 September 2015", "raw_end": "23 September 2015", "type": "Legislative counter-claim during coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burkina-faso-2015-michel-kafando", "country": "burkina-faso", "country_name": "Burkina Faso", "name": "Michel Kafando", "title": "Transitional President (restored)", "start_year": 2015, "end_year": 2015, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "23 September 2015", "raw_end": "29 December 2015", "type": "Restoration after coup collapse", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burkina-faso-2015-roch-marc-christian-kabore", "country": "burkina-faso", "country_name": "Burkina Faso", "name": "Roch Marc Christian Kaboré", "title": "President", "start_year": 2015, "end_year": 2022, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "29 December 2015", "raw_end": "24 January 2022", "type": "Elected / deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burkina-faso-2022-paul-henri-sandaogo-damiba", "country": "burkina-faso", "country_name": "Burkina Faso", "name": "Paul-Henri Sandaogo Damiba", "title": "President (military, transitional)", "start_year": 2022, "end_year": 2022, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "24 January 2022", "raw_end": "30 September 2022", "type": "Coup / deposed by second coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burkina-faso-2022-ibrahim-traore", "country": "burkina-faso", "country_name": "Burkina Faso", "name": "Ibrahim Traoré", "title": "President (military, transitional)", "start_year": 2022, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "30 September 2022", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burundi-1800-ntare-iv-rutaganzwa-rugamba", "country": "burundi", "country_name": "Burundi", "name": "Ntare IV Rutaganzwa Rugamba", "title": "Mwami (King) of Burundi", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1850, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "c. 1800 (reign began c. 1796)", "raw_end": "c. 1850", "type": "Hereditary succession", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burundi-1850-mwezi-iv-gisabo", "country": "burundi", "country_name": "Burundi", "name": "Mwezi IV Gisabo", "title": "Mwami (King) of Burundi", "start_year": 1850, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "c. 1850", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Hereditary succession", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burundi-1900-germany-german-east-africa", "country": "burundi", "country_name": "Burundi", "name": "Germany (German East Africa)", "title": "Colonial rule (part of German East Africa)", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1916, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1916", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burundi-1916-belgium-military-occupation-of-urundi", "country": "burundi", "country_name": "Burundi", "name": "Belgium (military occupation of Urundi)", "title": "Belgian military occupation (Belgian Occupied East African Territories)", "start_year": 1916, "end_year": 1922, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "Jun 1916", "raw_end": "20 Jul 1922", "type": "Military occupation", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burundi-1922-belgium-ruanda-urundi", "country": "burundi", "country_name": "Burundi", "name": "Belgium (Ruanda-Urundi)", "title": "League of Nations mandate (Ruanda-Urundi)", "start_year": 1922, "end_year": 1962, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "20 Jul 1922", "raw_end": "1962", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burundi-1962-mwambutsa-iv", "country": "burundi", "country_name": "Burundi", "name": "Mwambutsa IV", "title": "Mwami (King)", "start_year": 1962, "end_year": 1966, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1 Jul 1962", "raw_end": "8 Jul 1966", "type": "Hereditary / deposed by his son", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burundi-1966-ntare-v", "country": "burundi", "country_name": "Burundi", "name": "Ntare V", "title": "Mwami (King)", "start_year": 1966, "end_year": 1966, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "8 Jul 1966", "raw_end": "28 Nov 1966", "type": "Deposed his father / monarchy abolished by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burundi-1966-michel-micombero", "country": "burundi", "country_name": "Burundi", "name": "Michel Micombero", "title": "President", "start_year": 1966, "end_year": 1976, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "28 Nov 1966", "raw_end": "1 Nov 1976", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burundi-1976-jean-baptiste-bagaza", "country": "burundi", "country_name": "Burundi", "name": "Jean-Baptiste Bagaza", "title": "President", "start_year": 1976, "end_year": 1987, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1 Nov 1976", "raw_end": "3 Sep 1987", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burundi-1987-pierre-buyoya-1st-term", "country": "burundi", "country_name": "Burundi", "name": "Pierre Buyoya (1st term)", "title": "President", "start_year": 1987, "end_year": 1993, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "3 Sep 1987", "raw_end": "10 Jul 1993", "type": "Coup/transition", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burundi-1993-melchior-ndadaye", "country": "burundi", "country_name": "Burundi", "name": "Melchior Ndadaye", "title": "President", "start_year": 1993, "end_year": 1993, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "10 Jul 1993", "raw_end": "21 Oct 1993", "type": "Assassinated", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burundi-1993-francois-ngeze", "country": "burundi", "country_name": "Burundi", "name": "François Ngeze", "title": "Acting President", "start_year": 1993, "end_year": 1993, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "21 Oct 1993", "raw_end": "27 Oct 1993", "type": "Coup (reversed)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burundi-1993-sylvie-kinigi", "country": "burundi", "country_name": "Burundi", "name": "Sylvie Kinigi", "title": "Acting President (as Prime Minister)", "start_year": 1993, "end_year": 1994, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "27 Oct 1993", "raw_end": "5 Feb 1994", "type": "Interim", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burundi-1994-cyprien-ntaryamira", "country": "burundi", "country_name": "Burundi", "name": "Cyprien Ntaryamira", "title": "President", "start_year": 1994, "end_year": 1994, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "5 Feb 1994", "raw_end": "6 Apr 1994", "type": "Assassinated", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burundi-1994-sylvestre-ntibantunganya", "country": "burundi", "country_name": "Burundi", "name": "Sylvestre Ntibantunganya", "title": "President", "start_year": 1994, "end_year": 1996, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "6 Apr 1994 (acting; formally installed 30 Sep 1994)", "raw_end": "25 Jul 1996", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burundi-1996-pierre-buyoya-2nd-term", "country": "burundi", "country_name": "Burundi", "name": "Pierre Buyoya (2nd term)", "title": "President", "start_year": 1996, "end_year": 2003, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "25 Jul 1996", "raw_end": "30 Apr 2003", "type": "Coup/transition", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burundi-2003-domitien-ndayizeye", "country": "burundi", "country_name": "Burundi", "name": "Domitien Ndayizeye", "title": "President", "start_year": 2003, "end_year": 2005, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "30 Apr 2003", "raw_end": "26 Aug 2005", "type": "Transition", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burundi-2005-pierre-nkurunziza", "country": "burundi", "country_name": "Burundi", "name": "Pierre Nkurunziza", "title": "President", "start_year": 2005, "end_year": 2020, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "26 Aug 2005", "raw_end": "8 Jun 2020", "type": "Died in office", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "burundi-2020-evariste-ndayishimiye", "country": "burundi", "country_name": "Burundi", "name": "Évariste Ndayishimiye", "title": "President", "start_year": 2020, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "18 Jun 2020", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "cabo-verde-1800-portugal-cape-verde", "country": "cabo-verde", "country_name": "Cabo Verde", "name": "Portugal (Cape Verde)", "title": "Continuous Portuguese Atlantic colony", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "cabo-verde-1900-portugal-cape-verde", "country": "cabo-verde", "country_name": "Cabo Verde", "name": "Portugal (Cape Verde)", "title": "Colonial rule", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1975, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1975", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "cabo-verde-1975-aristides-pereira", "country": "cabo-verde", "country_name": "Cabo Verde", "name": "Aristides Pereira", "title": "President", "start_year": 1975, "end_year": 1991, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1975", "raw_end": "1991", "type": "Elected (single-party)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "cabo-verde-1991-antonio-mascarenhas-monteiro", "country": "cabo-verde", "country_name": "Cabo Verde", "name": "António Mascarenhas Monteiro", "title": "President", "start_year": 1991, "end_year": 2001, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "22 March 1991", "raw_end": "22 March 2001", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "cabo-verde-2001-pedro-pires", "country": "cabo-verde", "country_name": "Cabo Verde", "name": "Pedro Pires", "title": "President", "start_year": 2001, "end_year": 2011, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "22 March 2001", "raw_end": "9 September 2011", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "cabo-verde-2011-jorge-carlos-fonseca", "country": "cabo-verde", "country_name": "Cabo Verde", "name": "Jorge Carlos Fonseca", "title": "President", "start_year": 2011, "end_year": 2021, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "9 September 2011", "raw_end": "9 November 2021", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "cabo-verde-2021-jose-maria-neves", "country": "cabo-verde", "country_name": "Cabo Verde", "name": "José Maria Neves", "title": "President", "start_year": 2021, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "9 November 2021", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "cameroon-1800-fragmented-independent-bamum-kingdom-cameroon-highlands-chie", "country": "cameroon", "country_name": "Cameroon", "name": "Fragmented: independent Bamum Kingdom, Cameroon Highlands chiefdoms, and Duala coastal trading polities", "title": "Precolonial era (fragmented, multiple regional polities)", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1809, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1809", "type": "Fragmented polities", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "cameroon-1809-adamawa-emirate-sokoto-vassal-north-and-bamum-kingdom-grassf", "country": "cameroon", "country_name": "Cameroon", "name": "Adamawa Emirate (Sokoto vassal, north) and Bamum Kingdom (grassfields), alongside Duala coastal chiefdoms and decentralized forest societies", "title": "Precolonial era (fragmented, multiple regional polities)", "start_year": 1809, "end_year": 1884, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1809", "raw_end": "1884", "type": "Fragmented polities", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "cameroon-1884-german-kamerun-protectorate-proclaimed-adamawa-emirate-and-b", "country": "cameroon", "country_name": "Cameroon", "name": "German Kamerun protectorate proclaimed; Adamawa Emirate and Bamum Kingdom retain internal autonomy", "title": "Precolonial era (contested frontier, conquest underway)", "start_year": 1884, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1884", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Contested frontier", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "cameroon-1900-germany-kamerun", "country": "cameroon", "country_name": "Cameroon", "name": "Germany (Kamerun)", "title": "Colonial rule (Kamerun)", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1916, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1916", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "cameroon-1916-united-kingdom-france-cameroons", "country": "cameroon", "country_name": "Cameroon", "name": "United Kingdom / France (Cameroons)", "title": "Anglo-French military occupation (provisional partition, pending League mandate)", "start_year": 1916, "end_year": 1922, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1916", "raw_end": "1922", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "cameroon-1922-united-kingdom-france-cameroons", "country": "cameroon", "country_name": "Cameroon", "name": "United Kingdom / France (Cameroons)", "title": "League of Nations mandate (UN Trust Territory from 1946), split British/French Cameroons", "start_year": 1922, "end_year": 1960, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1922", "raw_end": "1960", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "cameroon-1960-ahmadou-ahidjo", "country": "cameroon", "country_name": "Cameroon", "name": "Ahmadou Ahidjo", "title": "President", "start_year": 1960, "end_year": 1982, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "5 May 1960", "raw_end": "6 Nov 1982", "type": "Voluntary resignation", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "cameroon-1982-paul-biya", "country": "cameroon", "country_name": "Cameroon", "name": "Paul Biya", "title": "President", "start_year": 1982, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "6 Nov 1982", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "central-african-republic-1800-decentralized-banda-gbaya-and-zande-lineage-societies", "country": "central-african-republic", "country_name": "Central African Republic", "name": "Decentralized: Banda, Gbaya and Zande lineage societies", "title": "Precolonial era (decentralized societies, no centralized state)", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1830, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1830", "type": "Decentralized societies", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "decentralized", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "central-african-republic-1830-fragmented-dar-al-kuti-slave-raiding-sultanate-forms-north-a", "country": "central-african-republic", "country_name": "Central African Republic", "name": "Fragmented: Dar al-Kuti slave-raiding sultanate forms (north); Avongara Zande chiefdoms consolidate (southeast); Banda and Gbaya remain stateless (center/west)", "title": "Precolonial era (fragmented, multiple regional polities)", "start_year": 1830, "end_year": 1870, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1830", "raw_end": "1870", "type": "Fragmented polities", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "central-african-republic-1870-zande-kingdom-under-king-gbudwe-dominant-southeast-dar-al-ku", "country": "central-african-republic", "country_name": "Central African Republic", "name": "Zande Kingdom under King Gbudwe dominant (southeast); Dar al-Kuti intensifies slave raiding as a Rabih/Wadai vassal (north); Banda and Gbaya remain stateless (center/west)", "title": "Precolonial era (fragmented, multiple regional polities)", "start_year": 1870, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1870", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Fragmented polities", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "central-african-republic-1900-france-ubangi-shari", "country": "central-african-republic", "country_name": "Central African Republic", "name": "France (Ubangi-Shari)", "title": "Colonial rule (Ubangi-Shari, part of French Equatorial Africa)", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1960, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1960", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "central-african-republic-1960-david-dacko", "country": "central-african-republic", "country_name": "Central African Republic", "name": "David Dacko", "title": "President", "start_year": 1960, "end_year": 1966, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "14 Aug 1960", "raw_end": "1 Jan 1966", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "central-african-republic-1966-jean-bedel-bokassa", "country": "central-african-republic", "country_name": "Central African Republic", "name": "Jean-Bédel Bokassa", "title": "President/Emperor", "start_year": 1966, "end_year": 1979, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1 Jan 1966", "raw_end": "21 Sep 1979", "type": "Coup/deposed", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "central-african-republic-1979-david-dacko", "country": "central-african-republic", "country_name": "Central African Republic", "name": "David Dacko", "title": "President", "start_year": 1979, "end_year": 1981, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "21 Sep 1979", "raw_end": "1 Sep 1981", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "central-african-republic-1981-andre-kolingba", "country": "central-african-republic", "country_name": "Central African Republic", "name": "André Kolingba", "title": "President", "start_year": 1981, "end_year": 1993, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1 Sep 1981", "raw_end": "22 Oct 1993", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "central-african-republic-1993-ange-felix-patasse", "country": "central-african-republic", "country_name": "Central African Republic", "name": "Ange-Félix Patassé", "title": "President", "start_year": 1993, "end_year": 2003, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "22 Oct 1993", "raw_end": "15 Mar 2003", "type": "Elected/deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "central-african-republic-2003-francois-bozize", "country": "central-african-republic", "country_name": "Central African Republic", "name": "François Bozizé", "title": "President", "start_year": 2003, "end_year": 2013, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "15 Mar 2003", "raw_end": "24 Mar 2013", "type": "Coup/deposed", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "central-african-republic-2013-michel-djotodia", "country": "central-african-republic", "country_name": "Central African Republic", "name": "Michel Djotodia", "title": "President / Head of State", "start_year": 2013, "end_year": 2014, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "24 Mar 2013", "raw_end": "10 Jan 2014", "type": "Coup/resigned", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "central-african-republic-2014-alexandre-ferdinand-nguendet", "country": "central-african-republic", "country_name": "Central African Republic", "name": "Alexandre-Ferdinand Nguendet", "title": "Acting Head of State", "start_year": 2014, "end_year": 2014, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "10 Jan 2014", "raw_end": "23 Jan 2014", "type": "Succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "central-african-republic-2014-catherine-samba-panza", "country": "central-african-republic", "country_name": "Central African Republic", "name": "Catherine Samba-Panza", "title": "Transitional Head of State", "start_year": 2014, "end_year": 2016, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "23 Jan 2014", "raw_end": "30 Mar 2016", "type": "Succession (transitional)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "central-african-republic-2016-faustin-archange-touadera", "country": "central-african-republic", "country_name": "Central African Republic", "name": "Faustin-Archange Touadéra", "title": "President", "start_year": 2016, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "30 Mar 2016", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "chad-1800-fragmented-wadai-sultanate-east-and-independent-bagirmi-sult", "country": "chad", "country_name": "Chad", "name": "Fragmented: Wadai Sultanate (east) and independent Bagirmi Sultanate (south-central)", "title": "Precolonial era (fragmented, multiple regional polities)", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1805, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1805", "type": "Fragmented polities", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "chad-1805-wadai-sultanate-dominant-bagirmi-sultanate-a-tributary-vassa", "country": "chad", "country_name": "Chad", "name": "Wadai Sultanate dominant; Bagirmi Sultanate a tributary vassal from 1805", "title": "Precolonial kingdom (dominant regional power)", "start_year": 1805, "end_year": 1893, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1805", "raw_end": "1893", "type": "Precolonial sultanate", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "chad-1893-contested-rabih-az-zubayr-s-warband-devastates-bagirmi-masse", "country": "chad", "country_name": "Chad", "name": "Contested: Rabih az-Zubayr's warband devastates Bagirmi (Massenya burned 1893); Bagirmi becomes a French protectorate in 1897; Wadai Sultanate remains fully independent", "title": "Precolonial era (contested frontier, conquest underway)", "start_year": 1893, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1893", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Contested frontier", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "chad-1900-wadai-sultanate-remains-independent-the-last-unconquered-mus", "country": "chad", "country_name": "Chad", "name": "Wadai Sultanate remains independent, the last unconquered Muslim kingdom of the Chad basin", "title": "Precolonial kingdom (dominant regional power, conquest pending)", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1909, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1909", "type": "Precolonial sultanate", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "chad-1909-france-chad", "country": "chad", "country_name": "Chad", "name": "France (Chad)", "title": "Colonial rule (part of French Equatorial Africa)", "start_year": 1909, "end_year": 1960, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1909", "raw_end": "1960", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "chad-1960-francois-tombalbaye", "country": "chad", "country_name": "Chad", "name": "François Tombalbaye", "title": "President", "start_year": 1960, "end_year": 1975, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "11 Aug 1960", "raw_end": "13 Apr 1975", "type": "Coup/assassinated", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "chad-1975-noel-milarew-odingar", "country": "chad", "country_name": "Chad", "name": "Noël Milarew Odingar", "title": "Interim Head of State", "start_year": 1975, "end_year": 1975, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "13 Apr 1975", "raw_end": "15 Apr 1975", "type": "Interim", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "chad-1975-felix-malloum", "country": "chad", "country_name": "Chad", "name": "Félix Malloum", "title": "President", "start_year": 1975, "end_year": 1979, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "15 Apr 1975", "raw_end": "23 Mar 1979", "type": "Resigned", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "chad-1979-goukouni-oueddei", "country": "chad", "country_name": "Chad", "name": "Goukouni Oueddei", "title": "Head of State", "start_year": 1979, "end_year": 1979, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "23 Mar 1979", "raw_end": "29 Apr 1979", "type": "Transitional", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "chad-1979-lol-mahamat-choua", "country": "chad", "country_name": "Chad", "name": "Lol Mahamat Choua", "title": "Head of State", "start_year": 1979, "end_year": 1979, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "29 Apr 1979", "raw_end": "3 Sep 1979", "type": "Transitional", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "chad-1979-goukouni-oueddei-2", "country": "chad", "country_name": "Chad", "name": "Goukouni Oueddei", "title": "Head of State", "start_year": 1979, "end_year": 1982, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "3 Sep 1979", "raw_end": "7 Jun 1982", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "chad-1982-hissene-habre", "country": "chad", "country_name": "Chad", "name": "Hissène Habré", "title": "President", "start_year": 1982, "end_year": 1990, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "7 Jun 1982", "raw_end": "2 Dec 1990", "type": "Coup/deposed", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "chad-1990-idriss-deby", "country": "chad", "country_name": "Chad", "name": "Idriss Déby", "title": "President", "start_year": 1990, "end_year": 2021, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "2 Dec 1990", "raw_end": "20 Apr 2021", "type": "Coup/Died in office", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "chad-2021-mahamat-idriss-deby", "country": "chad", "country_name": "Chad", "name": "Mahamat Idriss Déby", "title": "Transitional Military Council President / President", "start_year": 2021, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "20 Apr 2021", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Succession (military, son of predecessor)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "comoros-1800-fragmented-competing-island-sultanates", "country": "comoros", "country_name": "Comoros", "name": "Fragmented: competing island sultanates", "title": "No central authority (multiple sultanates per island)", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1841, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1841", "type": "Decentralized, multiple rulers", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "comoros-1841-fragmented-island-sultanates-under-growing-french-protectora", "country": "comoros", "country_name": "Comoros", "name": "Fragmented: island sultanates under growing French protectorate", "title": "No central authority (island sultanates, increasing French protectorate control)", "start_year": 1841, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1841", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Decentralized, multiple rulers under external protectorate", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "comoros-1900-france-comoro-islands", "country": "comoros", "country_name": "Comoros", "name": "France (Comoro Islands)", "title": "Colonial rule", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1975, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1975", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "comoros-1975-ahmed-abdallah", "country": "comoros", "country_name": "Comoros", "name": "Ahmed Abdallah", "title": "President of the Government / Head of State", "start_year": 1975, "end_year": 1975, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "6 Jul 1975", "raw_end": "3 Aug 1975", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "comoros-1975-said-mohamed-jaffar", "country": "comoros", "country_name": "Comoros", "name": "Said Mohamed Jaffar", "title": "Chairman, National Council of the Revolution", "start_year": 1975, "end_year": 1976, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "3 Aug 1975", "raw_end": "3 Jan 1976", "type": "Succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "comoros-1976-ali-soilih", "country": "comoros", "country_name": "Comoros", "name": "Ali Soilih", "title": "Head of State / President", "start_year": 1976, "end_year": 1978, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "3 Jan 1976", "raw_end": "13 May 1978", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "comoros-1978-said-atthoumani", "country": "comoros", "country_name": "Comoros", "name": "Said Atthoumani", "title": "Chairman, Politico-Military Directorate", "start_year": 1978, "end_year": 1978, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "13 May 1978", "raw_end": "23 May 1978", "type": "Coup transition", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "comoros-1978-ahmed-abdallah-mohamed-ahmed", "country": "comoros", "country_name": "Comoros", "name": "Ahmed Abdallah & Mohamed Ahmed", "title": "Co-Chairmen, Politico-Military Directorate", "start_year": 1978, "end_year": 1978, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "23 May 1978", "raw_end": "3 Oct 1978", "type": "Succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "comoros-1978-ahmed-abdallah", "country": "comoros", "country_name": "Comoros", "name": "Ahmed Abdallah", "title": "President", "start_year": 1978, "end_year": 1989, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "3 Oct 1978", "raw_end": "26 Nov 1989", "type": "Assassinated", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "comoros-1989-said-mohamed-djohar", "country": "comoros", "country_name": "Comoros", "name": "Said Mohamed Djohar", "title": "Acting President", "start_year": 1989, "end_year": 1990, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "27 Nov 1989", "raw_end": "20 Mar 1990", "type": "Succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "comoros-1990-said-mohamed-djohar", "country": "comoros", "country_name": "Comoros", "name": "Said Mohamed Djohar", "title": "President", "start_year": 1990, "end_year": 1995, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "20 Mar 1990", "raw_end": "29 Sep 1995", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "comoros-1995-combo-ayouba", "country": "comoros", "country_name": "Comoros", "name": "Combo Ayouba", "title": "Coordinator, Transitional Military Committee", "start_year": 1995, "end_year": 1995, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "29 Sep 1995", "raw_end": "2 Oct 1995", "type": "Coup transition", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "comoros-1995-mohamed-taki-abdoulkarim-said-ali-kemal", "country": "comoros", "country_name": "Comoros", "name": "Mohamed Taki Abdoulkarim & Said Ali Kemal", "title": "Acting Co-Presidents", "start_year": 1995, "end_year": 1995, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "2 Oct 1995", "raw_end": "5 Oct 1995", "type": "Succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "comoros-1995-caabi-el-yachroutu-mohamed", "country": "comoros", "country_name": "Comoros", "name": "Caabi El-Yachroutu Mohamed", "title": "Interim President", "start_year": 1995, "end_year": 1996, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "5 Oct 1995", "raw_end": "26 Jan 1996", "type": "Succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "comoros-1996-said-mohamed-djohar", "country": "comoros", "country_name": "Comoros", "name": "Said Mohamed Djohar", "title": "President", "start_year": 1996, "end_year": 1996, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "26 Jan 1996", "raw_end": "25 Mar 1996", "type": "Succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "comoros-1996-mohamed-taki-abdoulkarim", "country": "comoros", "country_name": "Comoros", "name": "Mohamed Taki Abdoulkarim", "title": "President", "start_year": 1996, "end_year": 1998, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "25 Mar 1996", "raw_end": "6 Nov 1998", "type": "Died in office", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "comoros-1998-tadjidine-massounde", "country": "comoros", "country_name": "Comoros", "name": "Tadjidine Massounde", "title": "Interim President", "start_year": 1998, "end_year": 1999, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "6 Nov 1998", "raw_end": "30 Apr 1999", "type": "Succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "comoros-1999-azali-assoumani", "country": "comoros", "country_name": "Comoros", "name": "Azali Assoumani", "title": "Head of State", "start_year": 1999, "end_year": 2002, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "30 Apr 1999", "raw_end": "21 Jan 2002", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "comoros-2002-hamada-madi", "country": "comoros", "country_name": "Comoros", "name": "Hamada Madi", "title": "Acting President", "start_year": 2002, "end_year": 2002, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "21 Jan 2002", "raw_end": "26 May 2002", "type": "Succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "comoros-2002-azali-assoumani", "country": "comoros", "country_name": "Comoros", "name": "Azali Assoumani", "title": "President", "start_year": 2002, "end_year": 2006, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "26 May 2002", "raw_end": "26 May 2006", "type": "Term end (rotating presidency)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "comoros-2006-ahmed-sambi", "country": "comoros", "country_name": "Comoros", "name": "Ahmed Sambi", "title": "President", "start_year": 2006, "end_year": 2011, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "26 May 2006", "raw_end": "26 May 2011", "type": "Term end (rotating presidency)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "comoros-2011-ikililou-dhoinine", "country": "comoros", "country_name": "Comoros", "name": "Ikililou Dhoinine", "title": "President", "start_year": 2011, "end_year": 2016, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "26 May 2011", "raw_end": "26 May 2016", "type": "Term end (rotating presidency)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "comoros-2016-azali-assoumani", "country": "comoros", "country_name": "Comoros", "name": "Azali Assoumani", "title": "President", "start_year": 2016, "end_year": 2019, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "26 May 2016", "raw_end": "13 Feb 2019", "type": "Term end (constitution changed mid-term)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "comoros-2019-moustadroine-abdou", "country": "comoros", "country_name": "Comoros", "name": "Moustadroine Abdou", "title": "Acting President", "start_year": 2019, "end_year": 2019, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "13 Feb 2019", "raw_end": "3 Apr 2019", "type": "Succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "comoros-2019-azali-assoumani", "country": "comoros", "country_name": "Comoros", "name": "Azali Assoumani", "title": "President", "start_year": 2019, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "3 Apr 2019", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "congo-brazzaville-1800-fragmented-loango-kingdom-in-decline-coast-and-tio-kingdom-u", "country": "congo-brazzaville", "country_name": "Congo (Republic of the Congo)", "name": "Fragmented: Loango Kingdom in decline (coast) and Tio Kingdom under the Makoko dynasty (interior plateau); northern forest interior decentralized", "title": "Precolonial era (fragmented, multiple regional polities)", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1880, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1880", "type": "Fragmented polities", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "congo-brazzaville-1880-tio-kingdom-becomes-a-french-protectorate-makoko-brazza-trea", "country": "congo-brazzaville", "country_name": "Congo (Republic of the Congo)", "name": "Tio Kingdom becomes a French protectorate (Makoko-Brazza Treaty, 1880); Loango Kingdom ceases to function as a state; northern interior remains decentralized", "title": "Precolonial era (contested frontier, conquest underway)", "start_year": 1880, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1880", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Contested frontier", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "congo-brazzaville-1900-france-middle-congo", "country": "congo-brazzaville", "country_name": "Congo (Republic of the Congo)", "name": "France (Middle Congo)", "title": "Colonial rule (Middle Congo, part of French Equatorial Africa)", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1960, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1960", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "congo-brazzaville-1960-fulbert-youlou", "country": "congo-brazzaville", "country_name": "Congo (Republic of the Congo)", "name": "Fulbert Youlou", "title": "President", "start_year": 1960, "end_year": 1963, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "15 Aug 1960", "raw_end": "15 Aug 1963", "type": "Deposed", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "congo-brazzaville-1963-alphonse-massamba-debat", "country": "congo-brazzaville", "country_name": "Congo (Republic of the Congo)", "name": "Alphonse Massamba-Débat", "title": "President", "start_year": 1963, "end_year": 1968, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "16 Aug 1963", "raw_end": "4 Sep 1968", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "congo-brazzaville-1968-alfred-raoul", "country": "congo-brazzaville", "country_name": "Congo (Republic of the Congo)", "name": "Alfred Raoul", "title": "Acting Head of State", "start_year": 1968, "end_year": 1969, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "5 Sep 1968", "raw_end": "1 Jan 1969", "type": "Interim", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "congo-brazzaville-1969-marien-ngouabi", "country": "congo-brazzaville", "country_name": "Congo (Republic of the Congo)", "name": "Marien Ngouabi", "title": "President", "start_year": 1969, "end_year": 1977, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1 Jan 1969", "raw_end": "18 Mar 1977", "type": "Coup/assassinated", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "congo-brazzaville-1977-joachim-yhombi-opango", "country": "congo-brazzaville", "country_name": "Congo (Republic of the Congo)", "name": "Joachim Yhombi-Opango", "title": "President", "start_year": 1977, "end_year": 1979, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "3 Apr 1977", "raw_end": "5 Feb 1979", "type": "Resigned", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "congo-brazzaville-1979-denis-sassou-nguesso", "country": "congo-brazzaville", "country_name": "Congo (Republic of the Congo)", "name": "Denis Sassou Nguesso", "title": "President", "start_year": 1979, "end_year": 1992, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "8 Feb 1979", "raw_end": "31 Aug 1992", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "congo-brazzaville-1992-pascal-lissouba", "country": "congo-brazzaville", "country_name": "Congo (Republic of the Congo)", "name": "Pascal Lissouba", "title": "President", "start_year": 1992, "end_year": 1997, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "31 Aug 1992", "raw_end": "25 Oct 1997", "type": "Elected/deposed", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "congo-brazzaville-1997-denis-sassou-nguesso", "country": "congo-brazzaville", "country_name": "Congo (Republic of the Congo)", "name": "Denis Sassou Nguesso", "title": "President", "start_year": 1997, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "25 Oct 1997", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "djibouti-1800-fragmented-afar-and-issa-somali-sultanates", "country": "djibouti", "country_name": "Djibouti", "name": "Fragmented: Afar and Issa Somali sultanates", "title": "No central authority (Sultanate of Tadjoura, Sultanate of Rahaita, Issa Somali clan territory)", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1862, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1862", "type": "Decentralized, multiple rulers", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "djibouti-1862-fragmented-afar-issa-sultanates-with-french-foothold-at-oboc", "country": "djibouti", "country_name": "Djibouti", "name": "Fragmented: Afar/Issa sultanates with French foothold at Obock", "title": "Local sultanates alongside a small French coaling station", "start_year": 1862, "end_year": 1884, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1862", "raw_end": "1884", "type": "Decentralized, multiple rulers plus limited foreign enclave", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "djibouti-1884-france-obock-territory-protectorate-of-tadjoura", "country": "djibouti", "country_name": "Djibouti", "name": "France (Obock Territory / Protectorate of Tadjoura)", "title": "French colonial protectorate, interior still contested", "start_year": 1884, "end_year": 1896, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1884", "raw_end": "1896", "type": "Colonial protectorate treaty", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "djibouti-1896-france-french-somaliland", "country": "djibouti", "country_name": "Djibouti", "name": "France (French Somaliland)", "title": "French colonial protectorate", "start_year": 1896, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1896", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "djibouti-1900-france-french-somaliland-french-territory-of-the-afars-and-i", "country": "djibouti", "country_name": "Djibouti", "name": "France (French Somaliland / French Territory of the Afars and Issas)", "title": "Colonial rule as French Somaliland; renamed French Territory of the Afars and Issas in 1967 after a referendum in which voters chose to remain associated with France", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1977, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1977", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "djibouti-1977-hassan-gouled-aptidon", "country": "djibouti", "country_name": "Djibouti", "name": "Hassan Gouled Aptidon", "title": "President", "start_year": 1977, "end_year": 1999, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "27 Jun 1977", "raw_end": "8 May 1999", "type": "Voluntary resignation", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "djibouti-1999-ismail-omar-guelleh", "country": "djibouti", "country_name": "Djibouti", "name": "Ismail Omar Guelleh", "title": "President", "start_year": 1999, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "8 May 1999", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "dr-congo-1800-fragmented-declining-kingdom-of-kongo-west-expanding-luba-ki", "country": "dr-congo", "country_name": "DR Congo", "name": "Fragmented: declining Kingdom of Kongo (west), expanding Luba Kingdom (southeast), Lunda Commonwealth (Katanga/south), and Kuba Kingdom (Kasai)", "title": "Precolonial era (fragmented, multiple regional polities)", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1840, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1840", "type": "Fragmented polities", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "dr-congo-1840-luba-and-lunda-kingdoms-at-their-height-southeast-katanga-ku", "country": "dr-congo", "country_name": "DR Congo", "name": "Luba and Lunda Kingdoms at their height (southeast/Katanga); Kuba Kingdom persists (Kasai); Kongo remnants in decline (west); Yeke Kingdom of Msiri forming in Katanga", "title": "Precolonial era (fragmented, multiple regional polities)", "start_year": 1840, "end_year": 1875, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1840", "raw_end": "1875", "type": "Fragmented polities", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "dr-congo-1875-luba-and-lunda-kingdoms-disintegrate-yeke-kingdom-of-msiri-g", "country": "dr-congo", "country_name": "DR Congo", "name": "Luba and Lunda Kingdoms disintegrate; Yeke Kingdom of Msiri (Garenganze) dominant in Katanga; Kuba Kingdom persists in Kasai", "title": "Precolonial era (fragmented, multiple regional polities)", "start_year": 1875, "end_year": 1891, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1875", "raw_end": "1891", "type": "Fragmented polities", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "dr-congo-1891-congo-free-state-conquest-proceeds-across-the-territory-kuba", "country": "dr-congo", "country_name": "DR Congo", "name": "Congo Free State conquest proceeds across the territory; Kuba Kingdom retains internal autonomy in Kasai", "title": "Precolonial era (contested frontier, conquest underway)", "start_year": 1891, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1891", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Contested frontier", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "dr-congo-1900-leopold-ii-of-belgium-congo-free-state", "country": "dr-congo", "country_name": "DR Congo", "name": "Leopold II of Belgium (Congo Free State)", "title": "Personal colonial possession of King Leopold II (Congo Free State)", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1908, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1908", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "dr-congo-1908-belgium-belgian-congo", "country": "dr-congo", "country_name": "DR Congo", "name": "Belgium (Belgian Congo)", "title": "Colonial rule (Belgian Congo, annexed from the Congo Free State)", "start_year": 1908, "end_year": 1960, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1908", "raw_end": "1960", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "dr-congo-1960-patrice-lumumba", "country": "dr-congo", "country_name": "DR Congo", "name": "Patrice Lumumba", "title": "Prime Minister", "start_year": 1960, "end_year": 1960, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "24 Jun 1960", "raw_end": "5 Sep 1960", "type": "Dismissed/Assassinated", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "dr-congo-1960-joseph-kasa-vubu", "country": "dr-congo", "country_name": "DR Congo", "name": "Joseph Kasa-Vubu", "title": "President", "start_year": 1960, "end_year": 1965, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "24 Jun 1960 (took office 30 Jun 1960)", "raw_end": "24 Nov 1965", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "dr-congo-1965-mobutu-sese-seko", "country": "dr-congo", "country_name": "DR Congo", "name": "Mobutu Sese Seko", "title": "President", "start_year": 1965, "end_year": 1997, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "24 Nov 1965", "raw_end": "16 May 1997", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "dr-congo-1997-laurent-desire-kabila", "country": "dr-congo", "country_name": "DR Congo", "name": "Laurent-Désiré Kabila", "title": "President", "start_year": 1997, "end_year": 2001, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "17 May 1997", "raw_end": "16 Jan 2001", "type": "Coup/assassinated", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "dr-congo-2001-joseph-kabila", "country": "dr-congo", "country_name": "DR Congo", "name": "Joseph Kabila", "title": "President", "start_year": 2001, "end_year": 2019, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "26 Jan 2001", "raw_end": "24 Jan 2019", "type": "Succession (son)/completed transition", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "dr-congo-2019-felix-tshisekedi", "country": "dr-congo", "country_name": "DR Congo", "name": "Félix Tshisekedi", "title": "President", "start_year": 2019, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "24 Jan 2019", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "egypt-1800-fragmented-ottoman-restoration-mamluk-beys-and-muhammad-ali", "country": "egypt", "country_name": "Egypt", "name": "Fragmented: Ottoman restoration, Mamluk beys, and Muhammad Ali's forces", "title": "Post-French-occupation power struggle", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1805, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1805", "type": "Power struggle/interregnum", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "egypt-1805-muhammad-ali-dynasty-ottoman-egypt", "country": "egypt", "country_name": "Egypt", "name": "Muhammad Ali dynasty (Ottoman Egypt)", "title": "Ottoman wali (governor), founder of a hereditary dynasty", "start_year": 1805, "end_year": 1867, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1805", "raw_end": "1867", "type": "Ottoman autonomous province", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "egypt-1867-khedivate-of-egypt-ottoman-autonomous", "country": "egypt", "country_name": "Egypt", "name": "Khedivate of Egypt (Ottoman autonomous)", "title": "Autonomous Ottoman tributary under the Khedive", "start_year": 1867, "end_year": 1882, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1867", "raw_end": "1882", "type": "Ottoman autonomous khedivate", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "egypt-1882-united-kingdom-khedivate-of-egypt", "country": "egypt", "country_name": "Egypt", "name": "United Kingdom (Khedivate of Egypt)", "title": "British occupation / veiled protectorate under nominal Ottoman suzerainty", "start_year": 1882, "end_year": 1914, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1882", "raw_end": "1914", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "egypt-1914-united-kingdom-sultanate-of-egypt", "country": "egypt", "country_name": "Egypt", "name": "United Kingdom (Sultanate of Egypt)", "title": "Protectorate", "start_year": 1914, "end_year": 1922, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1914", "raw_end": "1922", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "egypt-1922-united-kingdom-kingdom-of-egypt", "country": "egypt", "country_name": "Egypt", "name": "United Kingdom (Kingdom of Egypt)", "title": "Nominally independent monarchy, British troops remained", "start_year": 1922, "end_year": 1953, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1922", "raw_end": "1953", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "egypt-1953-mohamed-naguib", "country": "egypt", "country_name": "Egypt", "name": "Mohamed Naguib", "title": "President", "start_year": 1953, "end_year": 1954, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "18 Jun 1953", "raw_end": "14 Nov 1954", "type": "Revolution/Forced resignation", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "egypt-1954-gamal-abdel-nasser", "country": "egypt", "country_name": "Egypt", "name": "Gamal Abdel Nasser", "title": "President (Chairman, Revolutionary Command Council 1954-56)", "start_year": 1954, "end_year": 1970, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "14 Nov 1954", "raw_end": "28 Sep 1970", "type": "Revolution", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "egypt-1970-anwar-sadat", "country": "egypt", "country_name": "Egypt", "name": "Anwar Sadat", "title": "President", "start_year": 1970, "end_year": 1981, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "28 Sep 1970", "raw_end": "6 Oct 1981", "type": "Succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "egypt-1981-sufi-abu-taleb", "country": "egypt", "country_name": "Egypt", "name": "Sufi Abu Taleb", "title": "Acting President", "start_year": 1981, "end_year": 1981, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "6 Oct 1981", "raw_end": "14 Oct 1981", "type": "Succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "egypt-1981-hosni-mubarak", "country": "egypt", "country_name": "Egypt", "name": "Hosni Mubarak", "title": "President", "start_year": 1981, "end_year": 2011, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "14 Oct 1981", "raw_end": "11 Feb 2011", "type": "Succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "egypt-2011-mohamed-hussein-tantawi", "country": "egypt", "country_name": "Egypt", "name": "Mohamed Hussein Tantawi", "title": "SCAF Chairman / de facto head of state", "start_year": 2011, "end_year": 2012, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "11 Feb 2011", "raw_end": "30 Jun 2012", "type": "Succession (military council)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "egypt-2012-mohamed-morsi", "country": "egypt", "country_name": "Egypt", "name": "Mohamed Morsi", "title": "President", "start_year": 2012, "end_year": 2013, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "30 Jun 2012", "raw_end": "3 Jul 2013", "type": "Elected/deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "egypt-2013-adly-mansour", "country": "egypt", "country_name": "Egypt", "name": "Adly Mansour", "title": "Interim President", "start_year": 2013, "end_year": 2014, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "4 Jul 2013", "raw_end": "8 Jun 2014", "type": "Succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "egypt-2014-abdel-fattah-el-sisi", "country": "egypt", "country_name": "Egypt", "name": "Abdel Fattah el-Sisi", "title": "President", "start_year": 2014, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "8 Jun 2014", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "equatorial-guinea-1800-decentralized-bubi-chiefdoms-on-bioko-no-unified-state-fang", "country": "equatorial-guinea", "country_name": "Equatorial Guinea", "name": "Decentralized: Bubi chiefdoms on Bioko (no unified state); Fang and coastal lineage societies on the Rio Muni mainland; Britain leases a base at Clarence for anti-slave-trade patrols (1827-1843)", "title": "Precolonial era (decentralized societies, no centralized state)", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1843, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1843", "type": "Decentralized societies", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "decentralized", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "equatorial-guinea-1843-spain-reasserts-nominal-control-of-bioko-after-the-british-l", "country": "equatorial-guinea", "country_name": "Equatorial Guinea", "name": "Spain reasserts nominal control of Bioko after the British lease ends; Bubi interior remains autonomous; Rio Muni mainland remains decentralized and largely unexplored by Spain", "title": "Precolonial era (contested frontier, conquest underway)", "start_year": 1843, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1843", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Contested frontier", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "equatorial-guinea-1900-spain-spanish-guinea", "country": "equatorial-guinea", "country_name": "Equatorial Guinea", "name": "Spain (Spanish Guinea)", "title": "Colonial rule (Spanish Guinea)", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1968, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1968", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "equatorial-guinea-1968-francisco-macias-nguema", "country": "equatorial-guinea", "country_name": "Equatorial Guinea", "name": "Francisco Macías Nguema", "title": "President", "start_year": 1968, "end_year": 1979, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "12 Oct 1968", "raw_end": "3 Aug 1979", "type": "Coup/executed", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "equatorial-guinea-1979-teodoro-obiang-nguema-mbasogo", "country": "equatorial-guinea", "country_name": "Equatorial Guinea", "name": "Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo", "title": "President", "start_year": 1979, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "3 Aug 1979", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "eritrea-1800-contested-frontier-ottoman-egyptian-coastal-suzerainty-afar", "country": "eritrea", "country_name": "Eritrea", "name": "Contested frontier: Ottoman-Egyptian coastal suzerainty, Afar sultanates, and highland local rulers", "title": "No single governing authority", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1874, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1874", "type": "Multiple overlapping claims, no unified administration", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "eritrea-1874-egypt-khedivate-coastal-and-highland-expansion", "country": "eritrea", "country_name": "Eritrea", "name": "Egypt (Khedivate) coastal and highland expansion", "title": "Khedivate administration (Red Sea coast and interior garrisons)", "start_year": 1874, "end_year": 1885, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1874", "raw_end": "1885", "type": "Imperial expansion, contested", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "eritrea-1885-italy-early-colonial-occupation-expanding-from-the-coast", "country": "eritrea", "country_name": "Eritrea", "name": "Italy (early colonial occupation, expanding from the coast)", "title": "Colonial occupation, pre-formal-colony", "start_year": 1885, "end_year": 1890, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1885", "raw_end": "1890", "type": "Military occupation, contested inland frontier", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "eritrea-1890-italy-colony-of-eritrea", "country": "eritrea", "country_name": "Eritrea", "name": "Italy (Colony of Eritrea)", "title": "Colonial administration", "start_year": 1890, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1 Jan 1890", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "eritrea-1900-italy-colony-of-eritrea", "country": "eritrea", "country_name": "Eritrea", "name": "Italy (Colony of Eritrea)", "title": "Colonial administration (Colonia Eritrea)", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1941, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1941", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "eritrea-1941-united-kingdom-british-military-administration", "country": "eritrea", "country_name": "Eritrea", "name": "United Kingdom (British Military Administration)", "title": "British administration of former Italian Eritrea", "start_year": 1941, "end_year": 1952, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1941", "raw_end": "15 Sep 1952", "type": "Military administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "eritrea-1952-federation-with-ethiopia", "country": "eritrea", "country_name": "Eritrea", "name": "Federation with Ethiopia", "title": "Autonomous unit federated with Ethiopia under the Ethiopian crown (UN Resolution 390)", "start_year": 1952, "end_year": 1962, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "15 Sep 1952", "raw_end": "14 Nov 1962", "type": "UN-resolved federation", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "eritrea-1962-province-of-ethiopia", "country": "eritrea", "country_name": "Eritrea", "name": "Province of Ethiopia", "title": "Incorporated into Ethiopia as a province; autonomy revoked", "start_year": 1962, "end_year": 1991, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "14 Nov 1962", "raw_end": "May 1991", "type": "Annexation / war of independence", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "eritrea-1991-isaias-afwerki", "country": "eritrea", "country_name": "Eritrea", "name": "Isaias Afwerki", "title": "Secretary-General of the Provisional Government (de facto independence)", "start_year": 1991, "end_year": 1993, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "29 May 1991", "raw_end": "24 May 1993", "type": "Liberation movement / transitional government", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "eritrea-1993-isaias-afwerki", "country": "eritrea", "country_name": "Eritrea", "name": "Isaias Afwerki", "title": "President", "start_year": 1993, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "24 May 1993", "raw_end": "present", "type": "War of independence leader, installed unopposed at independence (never elected; no constitution implemented, no term limits, no elections held since)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "eswatini-1800-swazi-kingdom-dlamini-dynasty-under-sobhuza-i", "country": "eswatini", "country_name": "Eswatini", "name": "Swazi Kingdom (Dlamini dynasty) under Sobhuza I", "title": "Consolidating monarchy", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1839, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1839", "type": "Hereditary monarchy", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "eswatini-1839-swazi-kingdom-under-mswati-ii", "country": "eswatini", "country_name": "Eswatini", "name": "Swazi Kingdom under Mswati II", "title": "Kingdom's namesake king", "start_year": 1839, "end_year": 1868, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1839", "raw_end": "1868", "type": "Hereditary monarchy", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "eswatini-1868-swazi-kingdom-under-later-19th-century-kings-sovereignty-ero", "country": "eswatini", "country_name": "Eswatini", "name": "Swazi Kingdom under later 19th-century kings, sovereignty eroding", "title": "Concessions undermine royal authority", "start_year": 1868, "end_year": 1889, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1868", "raw_end": "1889", "type": "Hereditary monarchy under external pressure", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "eswatini-1889-contested-frontier-boer-british-joint-rule-and-british-takeo", "country": "eswatini", "country_name": "Eswatini", "name": "Contested frontier: Boer-British joint rule and British takeover", "title": "Joint administration, then British protectorate", "start_year": 1889, "end_year": 1903, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1889", "raw_end": "1903", "type": "Contested frontier, joint administration", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "eswatini-1903-united-kingdom-swaziland", "country": "eswatini", "country_name": "Eswatini", "name": "United Kingdom (Swaziland)", "title": "Colonial rule (Swaziland); administered by the South African Republic (Transvaal) under the 1894 Swaziland Convention until the Second Boer War, with direct British Crown administration established in 1903 (Swaziland Order in Council) and the protectorate formally confirmed in 1906", "start_year": 1903, "end_year": 1968, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1903", "raw_end": "1968", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "eswatini-1968-sobhuza-ii", "country": "eswatini", "country_name": "Eswatini", "name": "Sobhuza II", "title": "King", "start_year": 1968, "end_year": 1982, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "6 Sep 1968 (independence; reigned as king since 1921)", "raw_end": "21 Aug 1982", "type": "Died in office", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "eswatini-1982-dzeliwe-queen-regent", "country": "eswatini", "country_name": "Eswatini", "name": "Dzeliwe (Queen Regent)", "title": "Queen Regent", "start_year": 1982, "end_year": 1983, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "21 Aug 1982", "raw_end": "10 Aug 1983", "type": "Palace coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "eswatini-1983-ntfombi-queen-regent", "country": "eswatini", "country_name": "Eswatini", "name": "Ntfombi (Queen Regent)", "title": "Queen Regent", "start_year": 1983, "end_year": 1986, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "10 Aug 1983", "raw_end": "25 Apr 1986", "type": "Regency", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "eswatini-1986-mswati-iii", "country": "eswatini", "country_name": "Eswatini", "name": "Mswati III", "title": "King", "start_year": 1986, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "25 Apr 1986", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Hereditary succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ethiopia-1800-fragmented-era-of-the-princes-zemene-mesafint", "country": "ethiopia", "country_name": "Ethiopia", "name": "Fragmented: Era of the Princes (Zemene Mesafint)", "title": "Regional Ras/Negus rulers (no single emperor)", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1855, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1855", "type": "Fragmented, no centralized authority", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ethiopia-1855-tewodros-ii", "country": "ethiopia", "country_name": "Ethiopia", "name": "Tewodros II", "title": "Emperor of Ethiopia", "start_year": 1855, "end_year": 1868, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1855", "raw_end": "1868", "type": "Died during British Magdala expedition", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ethiopia-1868-fragmented-interregnum-after-tewodros-ii", "country": "ethiopia", "country_name": "Ethiopia", "name": "Fragmented: Interregnum after Tewodros II", "title": "Contested succession (no consolidated emperor)", "start_year": 1868, "end_year": 1872, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1868", "raw_end": "1872", "type": "Regional succession conflict", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ethiopia-1872-yohannes-iv", "country": "ethiopia", "country_name": "Ethiopia", "name": "Yohannes IV", "title": "Emperor of Ethiopia", "start_year": 1872, "end_year": 1889, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1872", "raw_end": "1889", "type": "Died in battle against Mahdist Sudan", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ethiopia-1889-menelik-ii", "country": "ethiopia", "country_name": "Ethiopia", "name": "Menelik II", "title": "Emperor of Ethiopia", "start_year": 1889, "end_year": 1913, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1889", "raw_end": "1913", "type": "Expanded and modernized the empire", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ethiopia-1913-lij-iyasu", "country": "ethiopia", "country_name": "Ethiopia", "name": "Lij Iyasu", "title": "Emperor-designate / de facto ruler of Ethiopia", "start_year": 1913, "end_year": 1916, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1913", "raw_end": "1916", "type": "Deposed", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ethiopia-1916-zewditu-empress-with-ras-tafari-makonnen-as-regent", "country": "ethiopia", "country_name": "Ethiopia", "name": "Zewditu (Empress) with Ras Tafari Makonnen as Regent", "title": "Empress, with Regent and heir-apparent", "start_year": 1916, "end_year": 1930, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1916", "raw_end": "1930", "type": "Empress and regent power-sharing arrangement", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ethiopia-1930-haile-selassie", "country": "ethiopia", "country_name": "Ethiopia", "name": "Haile Selassie", "title": "Emperor", "start_year": 1930, "end_year": 1936, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "2 Nov 1930", "raw_end": "1936", "type": "Deposed in coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ethiopia-1936-italy-italian-east-africa", "country": "ethiopia", "country_name": "Ethiopia", "name": "Italy (Italian East Africa)", "title": "Occupation", "start_year": 1936, "end_year": 1941, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1936", "raw_end": "1941", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ethiopia-1941-haile-selassie", "country": "ethiopia", "country_name": "Ethiopia", "name": "Haile Selassie", "title": "Emperor", "start_year": 1941, "end_year": 1974, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1941", "raw_end": "12 Sep 1974", "type": "Deposed in coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ethiopia-1974-aman-andom", "country": "ethiopia", "country_name": "Ethiopia", "name": "Aman Andom", "title": "Chairman of the Derg (Acting Head of State)", "start_year": 1974, "end_year": 1974, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "15 Sep 1974", "raw_end": "23 Nov 1974", "type": "Killed resisting arrest", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ethiopia-1974-tafari-benti", "country": "ethiopia", "country_name": "Ethiopia", "name": "Tafari Benti", "title": "Chairman of the Derg", "start_year": 1974, "end_year": 1977, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "28 Nov 1974", "raw_end": "3 Feb 1977", "type": "Killed in coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ethiopia-1977-mengistu-haile-mariam", "country": "ethiopia", "country_name": "Ethiopia", "name": "Mengistu Haile Mariam", "title": "Chairman of the Derg / President", "start_year": 1977, "end_year": 1991, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "3 Feb 1977", "raw_end": "21 May 1991", "type": "Fled/regime collapse", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ethiopia-1991-meles-zenawi", "country": "ethiopia", "country_name": "Ethiopia", "name": "Meles Zenawi", "title": "Transitional President (1991-95) / Prime Minister (1995-2012)", "start_year": 1991, "end_year": 2012, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "28 May 1991", "raw_end": "20 Aug 2012", "type": "Died in office", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ethiopia-2012-hailemariam-desalegn", "country": "ethiopia", "country_name": "Ethiopia", "name": "Hailemariam Desalegn", "title": "Prime Minister", "start_year": 2012, "end_year": 2018, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "21 Sep 2012", "raw_end": "2 Apr 2018", "type": "Voluntary resignation", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ethiopia-2018-abiy-ahmed", "country": "ethiopia", "country_name": "Ethiopia", "name": "Abiy Ahmed", "title": "Prime Minister", "start_year": 2018, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "2 Apr 2018", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "gabon-1800-fragmented-kingdom-of-orungu-cape-lopez-ogooue-delta-and-mpo", "country": "gabon", "country_name": "Gabon", "name": "Fragmented: Kingdom of Orungu (Cape Lopez/Ogooue delta) and Mpongwe trading polities (Gabon estuary); forested interior decentralized; Fang peoples beginning to migrate southwest", "title": "Precolonial era (fragmented, multiple regional polities)", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1839, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1839", "type": "Fragmented polities", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "gabon-1839-france-establishes-a-foothold-at-the-gabon-estuary-1839-trea", "country": "gabon", "country_name": "Gabon", "name": "France establishes a foothold at the Gabon estuary (1839 treaty with Mpongwe King Denis); Orungu Kingdom declines; interior remains decentralized as Fang migration continues", "title": "Precolonial era (contested frontier, conquest underway)", "start_year": 1839, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1839", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Contested frontier", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "gabon-1900-france-gabon", "country": "gabon", "country_name": "Gabon", "name": "France (Gabon)", "title": "Colonial rule (part of French Equatorial Africa)", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1960, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1960", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "gabon-1960-leon-m-ba", "country": "gabon", "country_name": "Gabon", "name": "Léon M'ba", "title": "President", "start_year": 1960, "end_year": 1967, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "17 Aug 1960", "raw_end": "28 Nov 1967", "type": "Died in office", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "gabon-1967-omar-bongo", "country": "gabon", "country_name": "Gabon", "name": "Omar Bongo", "title": "President", "start_year": 1967, "end_year": 2009, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "28 Nov 1967", "raw_end": "8 Jun 2009", "type": "Succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "gabon-2009-ali-bongo", "country": "gabon", "country_name": "Gabon", "name": "Ali Bongo", "title": "President", "start_year": 2009, "end_year": 2023, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "16 Oct 2009", "raw_end": "30 Aug 2023", "type": "Succession (son)/deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "gabon-2023-brice-oligui-nguema", "country": "gabon", "country_name": "Gabon", "name": "Brice Oligui Nguema", "title": "President", "start_year": 2023, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "30 Aug 2023", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "gambia-1800-fragmented-mandinka-and-wolof-river-kingdoms-niumi-baddibu-n", "country": "gambia", "country_name": "The Gambia", "name": "Fragmented: Mandinka and Wolof river kingdoms (Niumi, Baddibu, Niani, Wuli, Kombo, Kiang, Jarra)", "title": "Independent Gambia River kingdoms", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1861, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1861", "type": "Fragmented kingdoms", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "gambia-1861-contested-frontier-soninke-marabout-wars-and-british-protect", "country": "gambia", "country_name": "The Gambia", "name": "Contested-frontier: Soninke-Marabout Wars and British protectorate", "title": "Religious civil wars and British expansion", "start_year": 1861, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1861", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Contested/conquest", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "gambia-1900-united-kingdom-colony-and-protectorate-of-the-gambia", "country": "gambia", "country_name": "The Gambia", "name": "United Kingdom (Colony and Protectorate of the Gambia)", "title": "Colonial rule (Colony and Protectorate of the Gambia)", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1965, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1965", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "gambia-1965-dawda-jawara", "country": "gambia", "country_name": "The Gambia", "name": "Dawda Jawara", "title": "President", "start_year": 1965, "end_year": 1994, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1965 (PM) / 1970 (President)", "raw_end": "1994", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "gambia-1994-yahya-jammeh", "country": "gambia", "country_name": "The Gambia", "name": "Yahya Jammeh", "title": "President", "start_year": 1994, "end_year": 2017, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "22 July 1994", "raw_end": "21 January 2017", "type": "Coup, later elected / forced out", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "gambia-2017-adama-barrow", "country": "gambia", "country_name": "The Gambia", "name": "Adama Barrow", "title": "President", "start_year": 2017, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "19 January 2017 (sworn in at Gambian Embassy, Dakar) / 18 February 2017 (inaugurated in Banjul)", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ghana-1800-asante-empire", "country": "ghana", "country_name": "Ghana", "name": "Asante Empire", "title": "Akan empire centered on Kumasi", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1874, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1874", "type": "Precolonial empire", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ghana-1874-asante-empire-post-kumasi", "country": "ghana", "country_name": "Ghana", "name": "Asante Empire (post-Kumasi)", "title": "Akan empire, weakened but independent", "start_year": 1874, "end_year": 1896, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1874", "raw_end": "1896", "type": "Precolonial empire", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ghana-1896-united-kingdom-asante-protectorate", "country": "ghana", "country_name": "Ghana", "name": "United Kingdom (Asante protectorate)", "title": "British protectorate pending annexation", "start_year": 1896, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1896", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Colonial conquest/protectorate", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ghana-1900-united-kingdom-gold-coast", "country": "ghana", "country_name": "Ghana", "name": "United Kingdom (Gold Coast)", "title": "Colonial rule (Gold Coast)", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1957, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1957", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ghana-1957-kwame-nkrumah", "country": "ghana", "country_name": "Ghana", "name": "Kwame Nkrumah", "title": "Prime Minister (1957-60), then President", "start_year": 1957, "end_year": 1966, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "6 Mar 1957", "raw_end": "24 Feb 1966", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ghana-1966-joseph-ankrah", "country": "ghana", "country_name": "Ghana", "name": "Joseph Ankrah", "title": "Chairman, National Liberation Council", "start_year": 1966, "end_year": 1969, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "24 Feb 1966", "raw_end": "2 Apr 1969", "type": "Coup / resigned", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ghana-1969-akwasi-afrifa", "country": "ghana", "country_name": "Ghana", "name": "Akwasi Afrifa", "title": "Chairman, National Liberation Council", "start_year": 1969, "end_year": 1969, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "2 Apr 1969", "raw_end": "3 Sep 1969", "type": "Succession (military council) / handed over", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ghana-1969-kofi-busia", "country": "ghana", "country_name": "Ghana", "name": "Kofi Busia", "title": "PM", "start_year": 1969, "end_year": 1972, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "Sep 1969", "raw_end": "13 Jan 1972", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ghana-1972-ignatius-acheampong", "country": "ghana", "country_name": "Ghana", "name": "Ignatius Acheampong", "title": "Head of State", "start_year": 1972, "end_year": 1978, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "13 Jan 1972", "raw_end": "5 Jul 1978", "type": "Coup/deposed", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ghana-1978-fred-akuffo", "country": "ghana", "country_name": "Ghana", "name": "Fred Akuffo", "title": "Chairman, Supreme Military Council", "start_year": 1978, "end_year": 1979, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "5 Jul 1978", "raw_end": "4 Jun 1979", "type": "Coup / deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ghana-1979-jerry-rawlings", "country": "ghana", "country_name": "Ghana", "name": "Jerry Rawlings", "title": "Chairman, Armed Forces Revolutionary Council", "start_year": 1979, "end_year": 1979, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "4 Jun 1979", "raw_end": "24 Sep 1979", "type": "Coup / handed over to elected government", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ghana-1979-hilla-limann", "country": "ghana", "country_name": "Ghana", "name": "Hilla Limann", "title": "President", "start_year": 1979, "end_year": 1981, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "24 Sep 1979", "raw_end": "31 Dec 1981", "type": "Elected/deposed", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ghana-1981-jerry-rawlings", "country": "ghana", "country_name": "Ghana", "name": "Jerry Rawlings", "title": "Chairman, Provisional National Defence Council", "start_year": 1981, "end_year": 1993, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "31 Dec 1981", "raw_end": "7 Jan 1993", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ghana-1993-jerry-rawlings", "country": "ghana", "country_name": "Ghana", "name": "Jerry Rawlings", "title": "President", "start_year": 1993, "end_year": 2001, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "7 Jan 1993", "raw_end": "7 Jan 2001", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ghana-2001-john-kufuor", "country": "ghana", "country_name": "Ghana", "name": "John Kufuor", "title": "President", "start_year": 2001, "end_year": 2009, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "7 January 2001", "raw_end": "7 January 2009", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ghana-2009-john-atta-mills", "country": "ghana", "country_name": "Ghana", "name": "John Atta Mills", "title": "President", "start_year": 2009, "end_year": 2012, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "7 January 2009", "raw_end": "24 July 2012", "type": "Elected / died in office", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ghana-2012-john-mahama", "country": "ghana", "country_name": "Ghana", "name": "John Mahama", "title": "President", "start_year": 2012, "end_year": 2017, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "24 July 2012", "raw_end": "7 January 2017", "type": "Succession, then elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ghana-2017-nana-akufo-addo", "country": "ghana", "country_name": "Ghana", "name": "Nana Akufo-Addo", "title": "President", "start_year": 2017, "end_year": 2025, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "7 January 2017", "raw_end": "7 January 2025", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ghana-2025-john-mahama", "country": "ghana", "country_name": "Ghana", "name": "John Mahama", "title": "President", "start_year": 2025, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "7 January 2025", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "guinea-1800-futa-jallon-imamate", "country": "guinea", "country_name": "Guinea", "name": "Futa Jallon (Imamate)", "title": "Fulani Islamic theocracy", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1897, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1897", "type": "Precolonial theocracy", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "guinea-1897-france-conquest-of-futa-jallon-and-wassoulou", "country": "guinea", "country_name": "Guinea", "name": "France (conquest of Futa Jallon and Wassoulou)", "title": "French military conquest", "start_year": 1897, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1897", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Colonial conquest/protectorate", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "guinea-1900-france-french-guinea", "country": "guinea", "country_name": "Guinea", "name": "France (French Guinea)", "title": "Colonial rule (French Guinea, part of French West Africa)", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1958, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1958", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "guinea-1958-ahmed-sekou-toure", "country": "guinea", "country_name": "Guinea", "name": "Ahmed Sékou Touré", "title": "President", "start_year": 1958, "end_year": 1984, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1958", "raw_end": "1984", "type": "Died in office", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "guinea-1984-louis-lansana-beavogui", "country": "guinea", "country_name": "Guinea", "name": "Louis Lansana Béavogui", "title": "Acting President", "start_year": 1984, "end_year": 1984, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "Mar 1984", "raw_end": "3 Apr 1984", "type": "Acting / deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "guinea-1984-lansana-conte", "country": "guinea", "country_name": "Guinea", "name": "Lansana Conté", "title": "President", "start_year": 1984, "end_year": 2008, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1984", "raw_end": "2008", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "guinea-2008-moussa-dadis-camara", "country": "guinea", "country_name": "Guinea", "name": "Moussa Dadis Camara", "title": "Head of State (junta chairman)", "start_year": 2008, "end_year": 2009, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "23 December 2008", "raw_end": "3 December 2009", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "guinea-2009-sekouba-konate", "country": "guinea", "country_name": "Guinea", "name": "Sékouba Konaté", "title": "Head of State (interim, military)", "start_year": 2009, "end_year": 2010, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "3 December 2009", "raw_end": "21 December 2010", "type": "Military transitional", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "guinea-2010-alpha-conde", "country": "guinea", "country_name": "Guinea", "name": "Alpha Condé", "title": "President", "start_year": 2010, "end_year": 2021, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "21 December 2010", "raw_end": "5 September 2021", "type": "Elected / deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "guinea-2021-mamady-doumbouya", "country": "guinea", "country_name": "Guinea", "name": "Mamady Doumbouya", "title": "President (transitional, then elected)", "start_year": 2021, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "5 September 2021", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Coup, later elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "guinea-bissau-1800-kaabu-empire", "country": "guinea-bissau", "country_name": "Guinea-Bissau", "name": "Kaabu Empire", "title": "Mandinka federation", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1867, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1867", "type": "Precolonial federation", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "guinea-bissau-1867-fragmented-post-kaabu-fula-and-mandinka-chieftaincies", "country": "guinea-bissau", "country_name": "Guinea-Bissau", "name": "Fragmented: post-Kaabu Fula and Mandinka chieftaincies", "title": "Successor chieftaincies and decentralized coastal societies", "start_year": 1867, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1867", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Fragmented/decentralized", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "guinea-bissau-1900-portugal-portuguese-guinea", "country": "guinea-bissau", "country_name": "Guinea-Bissau", "name": "Portugal (Portuguese Guinea)", "title": "Colonial rule (Portuguese Guinea)", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1974, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1974", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "guinea-bissau-1973-luis-cabral", "country": "guinea-bissau", "country_name": "Guinea-Bissau", "name": "Luís Cabral", "title": "Chairman of the Council of State", "start_year": 1973, "end_year": 1980, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "24 Sep 1973", "raw_end": "14 Nov 1980", "type": "Deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "guinea-bissau-1980-joao-bernardo-vieira", "country": "guinea-bissau", "country_name": "Guinea-Bissau", "name": "João Bernardo Vieira", "title": "President", "start_year": 1980, "end_year": 1999, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1980", "raw_end": "1999", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "guinea-bissau-1984-carmen-pereira", "country": "guinea-bissau", "country_name": "Guinea-Bissau", "name": "Carmen Pereira", "title": "Acting Chairwoman of the Council of State", "start_year": 1984, "end_year": 1984, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "14 May 1984", "raw_end": "16 May 1984", "type": "Acting", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "guinea-bissau-1999-ansumane-mane", "country": "guinea-bissau", "country_name": "Guinea-Bissau", "name": "Ansumane Mané", "title": "Chairman of the Supreme Command of the Military Junta", "start_year": 1999, "end_year": 1999, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "7 May 1999", "raw_end": "14 May 1999", "type": "Coup / handed over", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "guinea-bissau-1999-malam-bacai-sanha", "country": "guinea-bissau", "country_name": "Guinea-Bissau", "name": "Malam Bacai Sanhá", "title": "Acting President", "start_year": 1999, "end_year": 2000, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "14 May 1999", "raw_end": "17 February 2000", "type": "Acting president after coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "guinea-bissau-2000-kumba-yala", "country": "guinea-bissau", "country_name": "Guinea-Bissau", "name": "Kumba Yala", "title": "President", "start_year": 2000, "end_year": 2003, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "17 February 2000", "raw_end": "14 September 2003", "type": "Elected / deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "guinea-bissau-2003-verissimo-correia-seabra", "country": "guinea-bissau", "country_name": "Guinea-Bissau", "name": "Veríssimo Correia Seabra", "title": "Chairman of the transition (military)", "start_year": 2003, "end_year": 2003, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "14 September 2003", "raw_end": "28 September 2003", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "guinea-bissau-2003-henrique-rosa", "country": "guinea-bissau", "country_name": "Guinea-Bissau", "name": "Henrique Rosa", "title": "Transitional President", "start_year": 2003, "end_year": 2005, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "28 September 2003", "raw_end": "1 October 2005", "type": "Interim / appointed", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "guinea-bissau-2005-joao-bernardo-vieira", "country": "guinea-bissau", "country_name": "Guinea-Bissau", "name": "João Bernardo Vieira", "title": "President", "start_year": 2005, "end_year": 2009, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1 October 2005", "raw_end": "2 March 2009", "type": "Elected / assassinated", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "guinea-bissau-2009-raimundo-pereira", "country": "guinea-bissau", "country_name": "Guinea-Bissau", "name": "Raimundo Pereira", "title": "Acting President", "start_year": 2009, "end_year": 2009, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "3 March 2009", "raw_end": "8 September 2009", "type": "Acting president (interim)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "guinea-bissau-2009-malam-bacai-sanha", "country": "guinea-bissau", "country_name": "Guinea-Bissau", "name": "Malam Bacai Sanhá", "title": "President", "start_year": 2009, "end_year": 2012, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "8 September 2009", "raw_end": "9 January 2012", "type": "Elected / died in office", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "guinea-bissau-2012-raimundo-pereira", "country": "guinea-bissau", "country_name": "Guinea-Bissau", "name": "Raimundo Pereira", "title": "Acting President", "start_year": 2012, "end_year": 2012, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "9 January 2012", "raw_end": "12 April 2012", "type": "Acting president (interim) / deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "guinea-bissau-2012-mamadu-ture-kuruma", "country": "guinea-bissau", "country_name": "Guinea-Bissau", "name": "Mamadu Ture Kuruma", "title": "Head of the military junta", "start_year": 2012, "end_year": 2012, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "12 April 2012", "raw_end": "11 May 2012", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "guinea-bissau-2012-manuel-serifo-nhamadjo", "country": "guinea-bissau", "country_name": "Guinea-Bissau", "name": "Manuel Serifo Nhamadjo", "title": "Transitional President", "start_year": 2012, "end_year": 2014, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "11 May 2012", "raw_end": "23 June 2014", "type": "Interim / negotiated transition", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "guinea-bissau-2014-jose-mario-vaz", "country": "guinea-bissau", "country_name": "Guinea-Bissau", "name": "José Mário Vaz", "title": "President", "start_year": 2014, "end_year": 2020, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "23 June 2014", "raw_end": "27 February 2020", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "guinea-bissau-2020-umaro-sissoco-embalo", "country": "guinea-bissau", "country_name": "Guinea-Bissau", "name": "Umaro Sissoco Embaló", "title": "President", "start_year": 2020, "end_year": 2025, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "27 February 2020", "raw_end": "26 November 2025", "type": "Elected / deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "guinea-bissau-2025-horta-inta-a-na-man", "country": "guinea-bissau", "country_name": "Guinea-Bissau", "name": "Horta Inta-A Na Man", "title": "Transitional President (military)", "start_year": 2025, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "27 November 2025", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ivory-coast-1800-fragmented-akan-kingdoms-and-decentralized-interior-societie", "country": "ivory-coast", "country_name": "Ivory Coast", "name": "Fragmented: Akan kingdoms and decentralized interior societies", "title": "Small kingdoms and stateless societies", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1892, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1892", "type": "Fragmented/decentralized", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ivory-coast-1892-contested-frontier-samori-s-wassoulou-empire-second-empire-c", "country": "ivory-coast", "country_name": "Ivory Coast", "name": "Contested-frontier: Samori's Wassoulou Empire (second empire, capital Kong) vs. France", "title": "Mobile resistance state vs. French conquest", "start_year": 1892, "end_year": 1898, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1892", "raw_end": "1898", "type": "Contested/conquest", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ivory-coast-1898-france-ivory-coast-post-samori-consolidation", "country": "ivory-coast", "country_name": "Ivory Coast", "name": "France (Ivory Coast, post-Samori consolidation)", "title": "French colonial consolidation", "start_year": 1898, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1898", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Colonial conquest/protectorate", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ivory-coast-1900-france-ivory-coast", "country": "ivory-coast", "country_name": "Ivory Coast", "name": "France (Ivory Coast)", "title": "Colonial rule (part of French West Africa)", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1960, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1960", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ivory-coast-1960-felix-houphouet-boigny", "country": "ivory-coast", "country_name": "Ivory Coast", "name": "Félix Houphouët-Boigny", "title": "President", "start_year": 1960, "end_year": 1993, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1960", "raw_end": "1993", "type": "Died in office", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ivory-coast-1993-henri-konan-bedie", "country": "ivory-coast", "country_name": "Ivory Coast", "name": "Henri Konan Bédié", "title": "President", "start_year": 1993, "end_year": 1999, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "7 December 1993", "raw_end": "24 December 1999", "type": "Constitutional succession / deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ivory-coast-1999-robert-guei", "country": "ivory-coast", "country_name": "Ivory Coast", "name": "Robert Guéï", "title": "Head of State (military junta)", "start_year": 1999, "end_year": 2000, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "24 December 1999", "raw_end": "26 October 2000", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ivory-coast-2000-laurent-gbagbo", "country": "ivory-coast", "country_name": "Ivory Coast", "name": "Laurent Gbagbo", "title": "President", "start_year": 2000, "end_year": 2011, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "26 October 2000", "raw_end": "11 April 2011", "type": "Elected / deposed by force", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "ivory-coast-2010-alassane-ouattara", "country": "ivory-coast", "country_name": "Ivory Coast", "name": "Alassane Ouattara", "title": "President", "start_year": 2010, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "4 December 2010 (declared winner) / 11 April 2011 (took power)", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "kenya-1800-fragmented-mazrui-ruled-mombasa-contests-omani-busaidi-contr", "country": "kenya", "country_name": "Kenya", "name": "Fragmented: Mazrui-ruled Mombasa contests Omani (Busaidi) control; decentralized interior", "title": "Regional rulers (no single government)", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1837, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1837", "type": "Contested coastal succession; decentralized interior", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "kenya-1837-decentralized-interior-with-zanzibar-coastal-commercial-suze", "country": "kenya", "country_name": "Kenya", "name": "Decentralized interior with Zanzibar coastal/commercial suzerainty", "title": "No single centralized government", "start_year": 1837, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1837", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Coastal commercial suzerainty; interior stateless", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "decentralized", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "kenya-1900-united-kingdom-british-east-africa-kenya-colony", "country": "kenya", "country_name": "Kenya", "name": "United Kingdom (British East Africa / Kenya Colony)", "title": "Colonial rule (British East Africa / Kenya Colony)", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1964, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1964", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "kenya-1964-jomo-kenyatta", "country": "kenya", "country_name": "Kenya", "name": "Jomo Kenyatta", "title": "President", "start_year": 1964, "end_year": 1978, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "12 Dec 1964", "raw_end": "22 Aug 1978", "type": "Died in office", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "kenya-1978-daniel-arap-moi", "country": "kenya", "country_name": "Kenya", "name": "Daniel arap Moi", "title": "President", "start_year": 1978, "end_year": 2002, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "22 Aug 1978", "raw_end": "30 Dec 2002", "type": "Term limit", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "kenya-2002-mwai-kibaki", "country": "kenya", "country_name": "Kenya", "name": "Mwai Kibaki", "title": "President", "start_year": 2002, "end_year": 2013, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "30 Dec 2002", "raw_end": "9 Apr 2013", "type": "Term limit", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "kenya-2013-uhuru-kenyatta", "country": "kenya", "country_name": "Kenya", "name": "Uhuru Kenyatta", "title": "President", "start_year": 2013, "end_year": 2022, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "9 Apr 2013", "raw_end": "13 Sep 2022", "type": "Term limit", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "kenya-2022-william-ruto", "country": "kenya", "country_name": "Kenya", "name": "William Ruto", "title": "President", "start_year": 2022, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "13 Sep 2022", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "lesotho-1800-fragmented-pre-unification-sotho-chiefdoms-amid-mfecane-uphe", "country": "lesotho", "country_name": "Lesotho", "name": "Fragmented: pre-unification Sotho chiefdoms amid Mfecane upheaval", "title": "No single dominant government", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1824, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1824", "type": "Decentralized, multiple chiefdoms under attack", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "lesotho-1824-basotho-kingdom-under-moshoeshoe-i", "country": "lesotho", "country_name": "Lesotho", "name": "Basotho Kingdom under Moshoeshoe I", "title": "Defensive mountain kingdom", "start_year": 1824, "end_year": 1868, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1824", "raw_end": "1868", "type": "Hereditary monarchy", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "lesotho-1868-basutoland-british-protectorate-basotho-chieftaincy-retained", "country": "lesotho", "country_name": "Lesotho", "name": "Basutoland (British protectorate, Basotho chieftaincy retained)", "title": "Protectorate under indirect rule", "start_year": 1868, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1868", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Protectorate, indirect rule", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "lesotho-1900-united-kingdom-basutoland", "country": "lesotho", "country_name": "Lesotho", "name": "United Kingdom (Basutoland)", "title": "Colonial rule (Basutoland)", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1966, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1966", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "lesotho-1966-leabua-jonathan", "country": "lesotho", "country_name": "Lesotho", "name": "Leabua Jonathan", "title": "PM", "start_year": 1966, "end_year": 1986, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "4 Oct 1966 (independence; PM since 7 Jul 1965)", "raw_end": "20 Jan 1986", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "lesotho-1986-justin-lekhanya", "country": "lesotho", "country_name": "Lesotho", "name": "Justin Lekhanya", "title": "Chairman, Military Council", "start_year": 1986, "end_year": 1991, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "24 Jan 1986", "raw_end": "2 May 1991", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "lesotho-1991-elias-ramaema", "country": "lesotho", "country_name": "Lesotho", "name": "Elias Ramaema", "title": "Chairman, Military Council", "start_year": 1991, "end_year": 1993, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "2 May 1991", "raw_end": "2 Apr 1993", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "lesotho-1993-ntsu-mokhehle", "country": "lesotho", "country_name": "Lesotho", "name": "Ntsu Mokhehle", "title": "PM", "start_year": 1993, "end_year": 1998, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "2 Apr 1993", "raw_end": "29 May 1998", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "lesotho-1998-pakalitha-mosisili", "country": "lesotho", "country_name": "Lesotho", "name": "Pakalitha Mosisili", "title": "PM", "start_year": 1998, "end_year": 2012, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "29 May 1998", "raw_end": "8 Jun 2012", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "lesotho-2012-tom-thabane", "country": "lesotho", "country_name": "Lesotho", "name": "Tom Thabane", "title": "PM", "start_year": 2012, "end_year": 2015, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "8 Jun 2012", "raw_end": "17 Mar 2015", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "lesotho-2015-pakalitha-mosisili", "country": "lesotho", "country_name": "Lesotho", "name": "Pakalitha Mosisili", "title": "PM", "start_year": 2015, "end_year": 2017, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "17 Mar 2015", "raw_end": "16 Jun 2017", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "lesotho-2017-tom-thabane", "country": "lesotho", "country_name": "Lesotho", "name": "Tom Thabane", "title": "PM", "start_year": 2017, "end_year": 2020, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "16 Jun 2017", "raw_end": "19 May 2020", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "lesotho-2020-moeketsi-majoro", "country": "lesotho", "country_name": "Lesotho", "name": "Moeketsi Majoro", "title": "PM", "start_year": 2020, "end_year": 2022, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "20 May 2020", "raw_end": "28 Oct 2022", "type": "Succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "lesotho-2022-sam-matekane", "country": "lesotho", "country_name": "Lesotho", "name": "Sam Matekane", "title": "PM", "start_year": 2022, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "28 Oct 2022", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-1800-decentralized-indigenous-societies-kru-grebo-vai-gola-kpelle", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "Decentralized: indigenous societies (Kru, Grebo, Vai, Gola, Kpelle and others)", "title": "No unified state", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1822, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1822", "type": "Decentralized societies", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "decentralized", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-1822-jehudi-ashmun-american-colonization-society", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "Jehudi Ashmun (American Colonization Society)", "title": "Colonial agent", "start_year": 1822, "end_year": 1828, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "8 August 1822", "raw_end": "26 March 1828", "type": "ACS colonial agent", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "settler-republic", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-1828-american-colonization-society-agents-multiple", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "American Colonization Society agents (multiple)", "title": "Colonial agents", "start_year": 1828, "end_year": 1839, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1828", "raw_end": "1839", "type": "ACS colonial agent", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "settler-republic", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-1839-thomas-buchanan", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "Thomas Buchanan", "title": "Governor, Commonwealth of Liberia", "start_year": 1839, "end_year": 1841, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1 April 1839", "raw_end": "3 September 1841", "type": "ACS colonial governor", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "settler-republic", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-1841-joseph-jenkins-roberts", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "Joseph Jenkins Roberts", "title": "Governor, Commonwealth of Liberia", "start_year": 1841, "end_year": 1847, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "3 September 1841", "raw_end": "26 July 1847", "type": "ACS colonial governor", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "settler-republic", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-1847-joseph-jenkins-roberts", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "Joseph Jenkins Roberts", "title": "President (1st term)", "start_year": 1847, "end_year": 1856, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1847", "raw_end": "1856", "type": "Elected president", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "settler-republic", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-1856-stephen-allen-benson", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "Stephen Allen Benson", "title": "President", "start_year": 1856, "end_year": 1864, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1856", "raw_end": "1864", "type": "Elected president", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "settler-republic", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-1864-daniel-bashiel-warner", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "Daniel Bashiel Warner", "title": "President", "start_year": 1864, "end_year": 1868, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1864", "raw_end": "1868", "type": "Elected president", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "settler-republic", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-1868-james-spriggs-payne", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "James Spriggs Payne", "title": "President (1st term)", "start_year": 1868, "end_year": 1870, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1868", "raw_end": "1870", "type": "Elected president", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "settler-republic", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-1870-edward-james-roye", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "Edward James Roye", "title": "President", "start_year": 1870, "end_year": 1871, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1870", "raw_end": "1871", "type": "Elected president, overthrown", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "settler-republic", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-1871-james-skivring-smith", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "James Skivring Smith", "title": "President (acting)", "start_year": 1871, "end_year": 1872, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1871", "raw_end": "1872", "type": "Acting president after coup", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "settler-republic", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-1872-joseph-jenkins-roberts", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "Joseph Jenkins Roberts", "title": "President (2nd term)", "start_year": 1872, "end_year": 1876, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1872", "raw_end": "1876", "type": "Elected president", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "settler-republic", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-1876-james-spriggs-payne", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "James Spriggs Payne", "title": "President (2nd term)", "start_year": 1876, "end_year": 1878, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1876", "raw_end": "1878", "type": "Elected president", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "settler-republic", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-1878-anthony-w-gardner", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "Anthony W. Gardner", "title": "President", "start_year": 1878, "end_year": 1883, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1878", "raw_end": "1883", "type": "Elected president", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "settler-republic", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-1883-alfred-francis-russell", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "Alfred Francis Russell", "title": "President", "start_year": 1883, "end_year": 1884, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1883", "raw_end": "1884", "type": "Elected president", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "settler-republic", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-1884-hilary-r-w-johnson", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "Hilary R. W. Johnson", "title": "President", "start_year": 1884, "end_year": 1892, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1884", "raw_end": "1892", "type": "Elected president", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "settler-republic", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-1892-joseph-james-cheeseman", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "Joseph James Cheeseman", "title": "President", "start_year": 1892, "end_year": 1896, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1892", "raw_end": "1896", "type": "Elected president", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "settler-republic", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-1896-william-d-coleman", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "William D. Coleman", "title": "President", "start_year": 1896, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1896", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Elected president", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "settler-republic", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-1900-garretson-w-gibson", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "Garretson W. Gibson", "title": "President", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1904, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "11 Dec 1900", "raw_end": "4 Jan 1904", "type": "Succession (Secretary of State), then elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-1904-arthur-barclay", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "Arthur Barclay", "title": "President", "start_year": 1904, "end_year": 1912, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "4 Jan 1904", "raw_end": "1 Jan 1912", "type": "Elected (True Whig Party)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-1912-daniel-edward-howard", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "Daniel Edward Howard", "title": "President", "start_year": 1912, "end_year": 1920, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1 Jan 1912", "raw_end": "5 Jan 1920", "type": "Elected (True Whig Party)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-1920-charles-d-b-king", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "Charles D. B. King", "title": "President", "start_year": 1920, "end_year": 1930, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "5 Jan 1920", "raw_end": "3 Dec 1930", "type": "Elected (True Whig Party), resigned", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-1930-edwin-barclay", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "Edwin Barclay", "title": "President", "start_year": 1930, "end_year": 1944, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "3 Dec 1930", "raw_end": "3 Jan 1944", "type": "Succession (Secretary of State), then elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-1944-william-tubman", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "William Tubman", "title": "President", "start_year": 1944, "end_year": 1971, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "3 Jan 1944", "raw_end": "23 Jul 1971", "type": "Elected (True Whig Party), died in office", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-1971-william-tolbert", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "William Tolbert", "title": "President", "start_year": 1971, "end_year": 1980, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1971", "raw_end": "1980", "type": "Assassinated in coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-1980-samuel-doe", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "Samuel Doe", "title": "Chairman, People's Redemption Council, then President", "start_year": 1980, "end_year": 1990, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "12 Apr 1980", "raw_end": "9 Sep 1990", "type": "Coup / killed", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-1990-amos-sawyer", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "Amos Sawyer", "title": "President of the Interim Government of National Unity", "start_year": 1990, "end_year": 1994, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "22 Nov 1990 (some sources 9 Sep 1990)", "raw_end": "7 Mar 1994", "type": "Interim/transitional (installed by ECOWAS-backed conference)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-1994-david-d-kpormakpor", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "David D. Kpormakpor", "title": "Chairman, Council of State", "start_year": 1994, "end_year": 1995, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "7 Mar 1994", "raw_end": "1 Sep 1995", "type": "Transitional (peace-accord power-sharing council)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-1995-wilton-g-s-sankawulo", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "Wilton G. S. Sankawulo", "title": "Chairman, Council of State", "start_year": 1995, "end_year": 1996, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1 Sep 1995", "raw_end": "3 Sep 1996", "type": "Transitional (peace-accord power-sharing council)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-1996-ruth-perry", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "Ruth Perry", "title": "Chairman, Council of State", "start_year": 1996, "end_year": 1997, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "3 Sep 1996", "raw_end": "2 Aug 1997", "type": "Transitional (peace-accord power-sharing council)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-1997-charles-taylor", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "Charles Taylor", "title": "President", "start_year": 1997, "end_year": 2003, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "2 Aug 1997", "raw_end": "11 Aug 2003", "type": "Elected (post-civil-war election) then resigned under pressure", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-2003-moses-blah", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "Moses Blah", "title": "President", "start_year": 2003, "end_year": 2003, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "11 Aug 2003", "raw_end": "14 Oct 2003", "type": "Constitutional succession (Vice President) then handover to transitional government", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-2003-gyude-bryant", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "Gyude Bryant", "title": "Chairman, National Transitional Government of Liberia", "start_year": 2003, "end_year": 2006, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "14 Oct 2003", "raw_end": "16 Jan 2006", "type": "Transitional (Accra Comprehensive Peace Agreement)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-2006-ellen-johnson-sirleaf", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "Ellen Johnson Sirleaf", "title": "President", "start_year": 2006, "end_year": 2018, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "16 Jan 2006", "raw_end": "22 Jan 2018", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-2018-george-weah", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "George Weah", "title": "President", "start_year": 2018, "end_year": 2024, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "22 Jan 2018", "raw_end": "22 Jan 2024", "type": "Elected; lost re-election", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "liberia-2024-joseph-boakai", "country": "liberia", "country_name": "Liberia", "name": "Joseph Boakai", "title": "President", "start_year": 2024, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "22 Jan 2024", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "libya-1800-karamanli-dynasty-autonomous-ottoman-regency-of-tripolitania", "country": "libya", "country_name": "Libya", "name": "Karamanli dynasty (autonomous Ottoman regency of Tripolitania)", "title": "Hereditary Ottoman regency (Pashas of Tripoli)", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1835, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1835", "type": "Ottoman regency (hereditary dynasty)", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "libya-1835-ottoman-empire-direct-rule-tripolitania", "country": "libya", "country_name": "Libya", "name": "Ottoman Empire (direct rule, Tripolitania)", "title": "Direct Ottoman provincial administration", "start_year": 1835, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1835", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Ottoman direct administration", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "libya-1900-ottoman-empire", "country": "libya", "country_name": "Libya", "name": "Ottoman Empire", "title": "Colonial administration", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1911, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1911", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "libya-1911-italy", "country": "libya", "country_name": "Libya", "name": "Italy", "title": "Colonial rule", "start_year": 1911, "end_year": 1943, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1911", "raw_end": "1943", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "libya-1943-united-kingdom-france", "country": "libya", "country_name": "Libya", "name": "United Kingdom / France", "title": "Military administration (UK: Tripolitania & Cyrenaica, France: Fezzan)", "start_year": 1943, "end_year": 1951, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1943", "raw_end": "1951", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "libya-1951-king-idris-i", "country": "libya", "country_name": "Libya", "name": "King Idris I", "title": "King", "start_year": 1951, "end_year": 1969, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "24 Dec 1951", "raw_end": "1 Sep 1969", "type": "Hereditary/Deposed", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "libya-1969-muammar-gaddafi", "country": "libya", "country_name": "Libya", "name": "Muammar Gaddafi", "title": "Head of state / Revolutionary Leader (Chairman, Revolutionary Command Council 1969-77)", "start_year": 1969, "end_year": 2011, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1 Sep 1969", "raw_end": "20 Oct 2011", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "libya-2011-mustafa-abdul-jalil", "country": "libya", "country_name": "Libya", "name": "Mustafa Abdul Jalil", "title": "NTC Chairman", "start_year": 2011, "end_year": 2012, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "2011", "raw_end": "2012", "type": "Succession (transitional council)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "libya-2012-mohammed-magariaf", "country": "libya", "country_name": "Libya", "name": "Mohammed Magariaf", "title": "GNC President", "start_year": 2012, "end_year": 2013, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "9 Aug 2012", "raw_end": "28 May 2013", "type": "Elected (transitional)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "libya-2013-giuma-ahmed-atigha", "country": "libya", "country_name": "Libya", "name": "Giuma Ahmed Atigha", "title": "Acting President of the General National Congress", "start_year": 2013, "end_year": 2013, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "28 May 2013", "raw_end": "25 Jun 2013", "type": "Acting", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "libya-2013-nouri-abusahmain", "country": "libya", "country_name": "Libya", "name": "Nouri Abusahmain", "title": "President of the General National Congress", "start_year": 2013, "end_year": 2014, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "25 Jun 2013", "raw_end": "4 Aug 2014", "type": "Congress president / recognition passed to new parliament", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "libya-2014-aguila-saleh-issa", "country": "libya", "country_name": "Libya", "name": "Aguila Saleh Issa", "title": "President of the House of Representatives (internationally recognized)", "start_year": 2014, "end_year": 2016, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "5 Aug 2014", "raw_end": "Mar 2016", "type": "Parliament president / rival governments", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "libya-2016-fayez-al-sarraj", "country": "libya", "country_name": "Libya", "name": "Fayez al-Sarraj", "title": "Presidential Council Chairman / PM", "start_year": 2016, "end_year": 2021, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "2016", "raw_end": "2021", "type": "Succession (UN-backed)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "libya-2021-mohamed-al-menfi", "country": "libya", "country_name": "Libya", "name": "Mohamed al-Menfi", "title": "Presidential Council Chairman", "start_year": 2021, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "2021", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Succession (UN-backed transitional process)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "madagascar-1800-merina-kingdom-imerina", "country": "madagascar", "country_name": "Madagascar", "name": "Merina Kingdom (Imerina)", "title": "Regional monarchy, central highlands", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1810, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1810", "type": "Hereditary monarchy", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "madagascar-1810-merina-kingdom-imerina-expanded", "country": "madagascar", "country_name": "Madagascar", "name": "Merina Kingdom (Imerina), expanded", "title": "Dominant regional monarchy, roughly two-thirds of the island", "start_year": 1810, "end_year": 1895, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1810", "raw_end": "1895", "type": "Hereditary monarchy", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "madagascar-1895-contested-frontier-french-conquest-and-annexation", "country": "madagascar", "country_name": "Madagascar", "name": "Contested frontier: French conquest and annexation", "title": "Conquest, protectorate, formal annexation", "start_year": 1895, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1895", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Conquest, contested frontier", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "madagascar-1900-france-madagascar", "country": "madagascar", "country_name": "Madagascar", "name": "France (Madagascar)", "title": "Colonial rule", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1960, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1960", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "madagascar-1960-philibert-tsiranana", "country": "madagascar", "country_name": "Madagascar", "name": "Philibert Tsiranana", "title": "President", "start_year": 1960, "end_year": 1972, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "26 Jun 1960", "raw_end": "11 Oct 1972", "type": "Voluntary resignation", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "madagascar-1972-gabriel-ramanantsoa", "country": "madagascar", "country_name": "Madagascar", "name": "Gabriel Ramanantsoa", "title": "Head of State / Prime Minister (military government)", "start_year": 1972, "end_year": 1975, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "11 Oct 1972", "raw_end": "5 Feb 1975", "type": "Voluntary resignation", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "madagascar-1975-richard-ratsimandrava", "country": "madagascar", "country_name": "Madagascar", "name": "Richard Ratsimandrava", "title": "Head of State", "start_year": 1975, "end_year": 1975, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "5 Feb 1975", "raw_end": "11 Feb 1975", "type": "Assassinated", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "madagascar-1975-gilles-andriamahazo", "country": "madagascar", "country_name": "Madagascar", "name": "Gilles Andriamahazo", "title": "Chairman, National Military Directorate", "start_year": 1975, "end_year": 1975, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "12 Feb 1975", "raw_end": "15 Jun 1975", "type": "Succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "madagascar-1975-didier-ratsiraka", "country": "madagascar", "country_name": "Madagascar", "name": "Didier Ratsiraka", "title": "Chairman, Supreme Revolutionary Council / President", "start_year": 1975, "end_year": 1993, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "15 Jun 1975", "raw_end": "27 Mar 1993", "type": "Voted out", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "madagascar-1993-albert-zafy", "country": "madagascar", "country_name": "Madagascar", "name": "Albert Zafy", "title": "President", "start_year": 1993, "end_year": 1996, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "27 Mar 1993", "raw_end": "5 Sep 1996 (announced departure; effective 10 Oct 1996)", "type": "Impeached", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "madagascar-1996-norbert-ratsirahonana", "country": "madagascar", "country_name": "Madagascar", "name": "Norbert Ratsirahonana", "title": "Acting President", "start_year": 1996, "end_year": 1997, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "5 Sep 1996", "raw_end": "9 Feb 1997", "type": "Succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "madagascar-1997-didier-ratsiraka", "country": "madagascar", "country_name": "Madagascar", "name": "Didier Ratsiraka", "title": "President", "start_year": 1997, "end_year": 2002, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "9 Feb 1997", "raw_end": "5 Jul 2002", "type": "Deposed", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "madagascar-2002-marc-ravalomanana", "country": "madagascar", "country_name": "Madagascar", "name": "Marc Ravalomanana", "title": "President", "start_year": 2002, "end_year": 2009, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "6 May 2002 (self-inaugurated amid disputed election); internationally recognized/effective 5 Jul 2002", "raw_end": "17 Mar 2009", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "madagascar-2009-andry-rajoelina", "country": "madagascar", "country_name": "Madagascar", "name": "Andry Rajoelina", "title": "President of the High Transitional Authority", "start_year": 2009, "end_year": 2014, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "21 Mar 2009", "raw_end": "25 Jan 2014", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "madagascar-2014-hery-rajaonarimampianina", "country": "madagascar", "country_name": "Madagascar", "name": "Hery Rajaonarimampianina", "title": "President", "start_year": 2014, "end_year": 2018, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "25 Jan 2014", "raw_end": "7 Sep 2018", "type": "Voluntary resignation", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "madagascar-2018-rivo-rakotovao", "country": "madagascar", "country_name": "Madagascar", "name": "Rivo Rakotovao", "title": "Acting President", "start_year": 2018, "end_year": 2019, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "7 Sep 2018", "raw_end": "19 Jan 2019", "type": "Succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "madagascar-2019-andry-rajoelina", "country": "madagascar", "country_name": "Madagascar", "name": "Andry Rajoelina", "title": "President", "start_year": 2019, "end_year": 2023, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "19 Jan 2019", "raw_end": "8-9 Sep 2023", "type": "Voluntary 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"ongoing": false, "raw_start": "16 Dec 2023", "raw_end": "14 Oct 2025", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "madagascar-2025-michael-randrianirina", "country": "madagascar", "country_name": "Madagascar", "name": "Michael Randrianirina", "title": "President for the Re-Foundation of the Republic", "start_year": 2025, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "17 Oct 2025", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "malawi-1800-fragmented-chewa-maravi-successor-chiefdoms-and-early-yao-an", "country": "malawi", "country_name": "Malawi", "name": "Fragmented: Chewa/Maravi successor chiefdoms and early Yao and Tumbuka polities", "title": "No central authority (post-Maravi chiefdoms)", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1855, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "c. 1855", "type": "Decentralized, multiple rulers", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "malawi-1855-fragmented-ngoni-raiding-kingdoms-yao-slave-trading-chiefdom", "country": "malawi", "country_name": "Malawi", "name": "Fragmented: Ngoni raiding kingdoms, Yao slave-trading chiefdoms and Chewa chiefdoms", "title": "No central authority (Ngoni, Yao and Chewa polities coexisting)", "start_year": 1855, "end_year": 1891, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "c. 1855", "raw_end": "1891", "type": "Decentralized, multiple rulers", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "malawi-1891-united-kingdom-british-central-africa-protectorate", "country": "malawi", "country_name": "Malawi", "name": "United Kingdom (British Central Africa Protectorate)", "title": "British colonial protectorate, contested", "start_year": 1891, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "14 May 1891", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Colonial protectorate proclamation", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "malawi-1900-united-kingdom-nyasaland", "country": "malawi", "country_name": "Malawi", "name": "United Kingdom (Nyasaland)", "title": "Colonial rule (Nyasaland)", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1966, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1966", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "malawi-1966-hastings-kamuzu-banda", "country": "malawi", "country_name": "Malawi", "name": "Hastings Kamuzu Banda", "title": "President", "start_year": 1966, "end_year": 1994, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "6 Jul 1966", "raw_end": "24 May 1994", "type": "Voted out", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "malawi-1994-bakili-muluzi", "country": "malawi", "country_name": "Malawi", "name": "Bakili Muluzi", "title": "President", "start_year": 1994, "end_year": 2004, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "24 May 1994", "raw_end": "24 May 2004", "type": "Term limit", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "malawi-2004-bingu-wa-mutharika", "country": "malawi", "country_name": "Malawi", "name": "Bingu wa Mutharika", "title": "President", "start_year": 2004, "end_year": 2012, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "24 May 2004", "raw_end": "5 Apr 2012", "type": "Died in office", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "malawi-2012-joyce-banda", "country": "malawi", "country_name": "Malawi", "name": "Joyce Banda", "title": "President", "start_year": 2012, "end_year": 2014, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "7 Apr 2012", "raw_end": "31 May 2014", "type": "Succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "malawi-2014-peter-mutharika", "country": "malawi", "country_name": "Malawi", "name": "Peter Mutharika", "title": "President", "start_year": 2014, "end_year": 2020, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "31 May 2014", "raw_end": "28 Jun 2020", "type": "Voted out", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "malawi-2020-lazarus-chakwera", "country": "malawi", "country_name": "Malawi", "name": "Lazarus Chakwera", "title": "President", "start_year": 2020, "end_year": 2025, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "28 Jun 2020", "raw_end": "16 Sep 2025 (conceded); Mutharika inaugurated 4 Oct 2025", "type": "Voted out", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "malawi-2025-peter-mutharika", "country": "malawi", "country_name": "Malawi", "name": "Peter Mutharika", "title": "President", "start_year": 2025, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "4 Oct 2025", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mali-1800-bamana-empire-of-segu", "country": "mali", "country_name": "Mali", "name": "Bamana Empire of Segu", "title": "Bamana kingdom", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1818, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1818", "type": "Precolonial kingdom", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mali-1818-fragmented-bamana-empire-of-segu-and-massina-empire", "country": "mali", "country_name": "Mali", "name": "Fragmented: Bamana Empire of Segu and Massina Empire", "title": "Two rival powers of the middle Niger", "start_year": 1818, "end_year": 1861, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1818", "raw_end": "1861", "type": "Fragmented kingdoms", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mali-1861-tukulor-empire", "country": "mali", "country_name": "Mali", "name": "Tukulor Empire", "title": "Tijaniyya jihad state", "start_year": 1861, "end_year": 1893, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "10 March 1861", "raw_end": "1893", "type": "Precolonial empire", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": 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the Republic from 1965)", "start_year": 1960, "end_year": 1968, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1960", "raw_end": "19 Nov 1968", "type": "Deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mali-1968-moussa-traore", "country": "mali", "country_name": "Mali", "name": "Moussa Traoré", "title": "President", "start_year": 1968, "end_year": 1991, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1968", "raw_end": "1991", "type": "Coup/deposed", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mali-1991-amadou-toumani-toure", "country": "mali", "country_name": "Mali", "name": "Amadou Toumani Touré", "title": "Chairman, Transitional Committee for the Salvation of the People (CTSP)", "start_year": 1991, "end_year": 1992, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "26 Mar 1991", "raw_end": "8 Jun 1992", "type": "Coup, then voluntary handover to elected civilian government", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mali-1992-alpha-oumar-konare", "country": "mali", "country_name": "Mali", "name": "Alpha Oumar Konaré", "title": "President", "start_year": 1992, "end_year": 2002, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "8 Jun 1992", "raw_end": "8 Jun 2002", "type": "Elected; term-limited", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mali-2002-amadou-toumani-toure", "country": "mali", "country_name": "Mali", "name": "Amadou Toumani Touré", "title": "President", "start_year": 2002, "end_year": 2012, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "8 Jun 2002", "raw_end": "22 Mar 2012", "type": "Elected; deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mali-2012-amadou-sanogo", "country": "mali", "country_name": "Mali", "name": "Amadou Sanogo", "title": "Chairman, National Committee for the Restoration of Democracy and the State", "start_year": 2012, "end_year": 2012, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "22 Mar 2012", "raw_end": "12 Apr 2012", "type": "Coup, brief tenure before ECOWAS-brokered handover", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mali-2012-dioncounda-traore", "country": "mali", "country_name": "Mali", "name": "Dioncounda Traoré", "title": "Interim President", "start_year": 2012, "end_year": 2013, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "12 Apr 2012", "raw_end": "4 Sep 2013", "type": "Constitutional interim succession (National Assembly Speaker)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mali-2013-ibrahim-boubacar-keita", "country": "mali", "country_name": "Mali", "name": "Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta", "title": "President", "start_year": 2013, "end_year": 2020, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "4 Sep 2013", "raw_end": "18 Aug 2020", "type": "Elected; deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mali-2020-assimi-goita", "country": "mali", "country_name": "Mali", "name": "Assimi Goïta", "title": "President of the Transition", "start_year": 2020, "end_year": 2020, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "18 Aug 2020", "raw_end": "25 Sep 2020", "type": "Coup leader, briefly de facto head before installing civilian-led transition", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mali-2020-bah-ndaw", "country": "mali", "country_name": "Mali", "name": "Bah Ndaw", "title": "President of the Transition", "start_year": 2020, "end_year": 2021, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "25 Sep 2020", "raw_end": "24 May 2021", "type": "Transitional appointment; deposed by second coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mali-2021-assimi-goita", "country": "mali", "country_name": "Mali", "name": "Assimi Goïta", "title": "President of the Transition / President of the Republic", "start_year": 2021, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "24 May 2021", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Second coup, then constitutionally declared/self-extended transitional president", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mauritania-1800-fragmented-moorish-emirates-trarza-brakna-adrar-tagant", "country": "mauritania", "country_name": "Mauritania", "name": "Fragmented: Moorish emirates (Trarza, Brakna, Adrar, Tagant)", "title": "Bidhan tribal emirates", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1903, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1903", "type": "Fragmented emirates", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mauritania-1903-france-conquest-of-the-mauritanian-emirates", "country": "mauritania", "country_name": "Mauritania", "name": "France (conquest of the Mauritanian emirates)", "title": "French pacification campaign", "start_year": 1903, "end_year": 1909, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1903", "raw_end": "1909", "type": "Colonial conquest/protectorate", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mauritania-1909-france-mauritania", "country": "mauritania", "country_name": "Mauritania", "name": "France (Mauritania)", "title": "Colonial rule (part of French West Africa)", "start_year": 1909, "end_year": 1960, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1909", "raw_end": "1960", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mauritania-1960-moktar-ould-daddah", "country": "mauritania", "country_name": "Mauritania", "name": "Moktar Ould Daddah", "title": "President", "start_year": 1960, "end_year": 1978, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "28 Nov 1960", "raw_end": "10 Jul 1978", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mauritania-1978-mustafa-ould-salek", "country": "mauritania", "country_name": "Mauritania", "name": "Mustafa Ould Salek", "title": "Chairman of the military committee (National Recovery, then National 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"Coup / deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mauritania-1984-maaouya-ould-sid-ahmed-taya", "country": "mauritania", "country_name": "Mauritania", "name": "Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya", "title": "Chairman, Military Committee for National Salvation, then President", "start_year": 1984, "end_year": 2005, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "12 Dec 1984", "raw_end": "3 Aug 2005", "type": "Coup / deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mauritania-2005-ely-ould-mohamed-vall", "country": "mauritania", "country_name": "Mauritania", "name": "Ely Ould Mohamed Vall", "title": "Chairman, Military Council for Justice and Democracy", "start_year": 2005, "end_year": 2007, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "3 Aug 2005", "raw_end": "19 Apr 2007", "type": "Coup, then voluntary handover to elected civilian government", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mauritania-2007-sidi-ould-cheikh-abdallahi", "country": "mauritania", "country_name": "Mauritania", "name": "Sidi Ould Cheikh Abdallahi", "title": "President", "start_year": 2007, "end_year": 2008, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "19 Apr 2007", "raw_end": "6 Aug 2008", "type": "Elected; deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mauritania-2008-mohamed-ould-abdel-aziz", "country": "mauritania", "country_name": "Mauritania", "name": "Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz", "title": "President of the High Council of State, then President", "start_year": 2008, "end_year": 2019, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "6 Aug 2008 (junta) / 5 Aug 2009 (elected president)", "raw_end": "1 Aug 2019", "type": "Coup, then won 2009 and 2014 elections; term-limited handover", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mauritania-2019-mohamed-ould-ghazouani", "country": "mauritania", "country_name": "Mauritania", "name": "Mohamed Ould Ghazouani", "title": "President", "start_year": 2019, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "1 Aug 2019", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Elected (2019, re-elected 2024)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mauritius-1800-france-isle-de-france", "country": "mauritius", "country_name": "Mauritius", "name": "France (Isle de France)", "title": "French colonial rule", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1810, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "3 Dec 1810", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mauritius-1810-united-kingdom-mauritius", "country": "mauritius", "country_name": "Mauritius", "name": "United Kingdom (Mauritius)", "title": "British colonial rule", "start_year": 1810, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "3 Dec 1810", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mauritius-1900-united-kingdom-mauritius", "country": "mauritius", "country_name": "Mauritius", "name": "United Kingdom (Mauritius)", "title": "Colonial rule", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1968, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1968", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mauritius-1968-seewoosagur-ramgoolam", "country": "mauritius", "country_name": "Mauritius", "name": "Seewoosagur Ramgoolam", "title": "Premier (pre-independence) / Prime Minister", "start_year": 1968, "end_year": 1982, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "18 Dec 1967 (Premier, pre-independence self-government); Prime Minister from independence 12 Mar 1968", "raw_end": "1982 (defeated in the Sep 1982 general election)", "type": "Voted out", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mauritius-1982-anerood-jugnauth", "country": "mauritius", "country_name": "Mauritius", "name": "Anerood Jugnauth", "title": "Prime Minister", "start_year": 1982, "end_year": 1995, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1982", "raw_end": "1995", "type": "Voted out", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mauritius-1995-navin-ramgoolam", "country": "mauritius", "country_name": "Mauritius", "name": "Navin Ramgoolam", "title": "Prime Minister", "start_year": 1995, "end_year": 2000, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "27 Dec 1995", "raw_end": "16 Sep 2000", "type": "Voted out", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mauritius-2000-anerood-jugnauth", "country": "mauritius", "country_name": "Mauritius", "name": "Anerood Jugnauth", "title": "Prime Minister", "start_year": 2000, "end_year": 2003, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "16 Sep 2000", "raw_end": "30 Sep 2003", "type": "Voluntary resignation", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mauritius-2003-paul-berenger", "country": "mauritius", "country_name": "Mauritius", "name": "Paul Bérenger", "title": "Prime Minister", "start_year": 2003, "end_year": 2005, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "30 Sep 2003", "raw_end": "5 Jul 2005", "type": "Voted out", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mauritius-2005-navin-ramgoolam", "country": "mauritius", "country_name": "Mauritius", "name": "Navin Ramgoolam", "title": "Prime Minister", "start_year": 2005, "end_year": 2014, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "5 Jul 2005", "raw_end": "13 Dec 2014", "type": "Voted out", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mauritius-2014-anerood-jugnauth", "country": "mauritius", "country_name": "Mauritius", "name": "Anerood Jugnauth", "title": "Prime Minister", "start_year": 2014, "end_year": 2017, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "13 Dec 2014", "raw_end": "23 Jan 2017", "type": "Voluntary 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1912, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1912", "type": "Islamic sultanate", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "morocco-1912-france-french-morocco", "country": "morocco", "country_name": "Morocco", "name": "France (French Morocco)", "title": "Protectorate (French Morocco)", "start_year": 1912, "end_year": 1956, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1912", "raw_end": "1956", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "morocco-1956-mohammed-v", "country": "morocco", "country_name": "Morocco", "name": "Mohammed V", "title": "Sultan (King from 1957)", "start_year": 1956, "end_year": 1961, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "2 Mar 1956", "raw_end": "26 Feb 1961", "type": "Hereditary", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "morocco-1961-hassan-ii", "country": "morocco", "country_name": "Morocco", "name": "Hassan 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"precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mozambique-1824-gaza-empire-soshangane", "country": "mozambique", "country_name": "Mozambique", "name": "Gaza Empire (Soshangane)", "title": "King of the Gaza Empire", "start_year": 1824, "end_year": 1858, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1824", "raw_end": "1858", "type": "Hereditary succession", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mozambique-1858-gaza-empire-succession-war-mawewe-vs-mzila", "country": "mozambique", "country_name": "Mozambique", "name": "Gaza Empire succession war (Mawewe vs Mzila)", "title": "Contested succession", "start_year": 1858, "end_year": 1861, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1858", "raw_end": "1861", "type": "Civil war", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mozambique-1861-gaza-empire-mzila", "country": "mozambique", "country_name": "Mozambique", "name": "Gaza Empire 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"raw_start": "Dec 1895", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Colonial conquest", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mozambique-1900-portugal-mozambique", "country": "mozambique", "country_name": "Mozambique", "name": "Portugal (Mozambique)", "title": "Colonial rule", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1975, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1975", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mozambique-1975-samora-machel", "country": "mozambique", "country_name": "Mozambique", "name": "Samora Machel", "title": "President", "start_year": 1975, "end_year": 1986, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "25 Jun 1975", "raw_end": "19 Oct 1986", "type": "Died in office", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mozambique-1986-frelimo-political-bureau-collective-leadership", "country": "mozambique", "country_name": 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"apartheid": false }, { "id": "mozambique-2015-filipe-nyusi", "country": "mozambique", "country_name": "Mozambique", "name": "Filipe Nyusi", "title": "President", "start_year": 2015, "end_year": 2025, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "15 Jan 2015", "raw_end": "15 Jan 2025", "type": "Term limit", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "mozambique-2025-daniel-chapo", "country": "mozambique", "country_name": "Mozambique", "name": "Daniel Chapo", "title": "President", "start_year": 2025, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "15 Jan 2025", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "namibia-1800-fragmented-nama-herero-ovambo-and-damara-polities", "country": "namibia", "country_name": "Namibia", "name": "Fragmented: Nama, Herero, Ovambo and Damara polities", "title": "No single dominant government", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1840, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1840", "type": "Decentralized, multiple polities", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "decentralized", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "namibia-1840-orlam-nama-hegemony-under-jonker-afrikaner", "country": "namibia", "country_name": "Namibia", "name": "Orlam Nama hegemony under Jonker Afrikaner", "title": "Regional hegemony, tribute-based", "start_year": 1840, "end_year": 1861, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1840", "raw_end": "1861", "type": "Hegemonic chieftaincy", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "namibia-1861-contested-frontier-nama-herero-war", "country": "namibia", "country_name": "Namibia", "name": "Contested frontier: Nama-Herero War", "title": "Open warfare after succession crisis", "start_year": 1861, "end_year": 1870, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1861", "raw_end": "1870", "type": "Contested frontier, warfare", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "namibia-1870-fragmented-independent-nama-and-herero-chiefdoms", "country": "namibia", "country_name": "Namibia", "name": "Fragmented: independent Nama and Herero chiefdoms", "title": "No single dominant government", "start_year": 1870, "end_year": 1884, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1870", "raw_end": "1884", "type": "Decentralized, multiple polities", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "namibia-1884-contested-frontier-german-protectorate-proclaimed-nama-and-h", "country": "namibia", "country_name": "Namibia", "name": "Contested frontier: German protectorate proclaimed, Nama and Herero resistance", "title": "Protectorate declared, sovereignty contested", "start_year": 1884, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1884", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Contested frontier", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "namibia-1900-germany-german-south-west-africa", "country": "namibia", "country_name": "Namibia", "name": "Germany (German South-West Africa)", "title": "Colonial rule (German South-West Africa)", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1915, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1915", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "namibia-1915-south-africa-south-west-africa", "country": "namibia", "country_name": "Namibia", "name": "South Africa (South West Africa)", "title": "Military occupation from 1915 following the German garrison's surrender; League of Nations Class C mandate formally awarded to South Africa in December 1920; UN revoked the mandate in 1966 but South Africa continued administering the territory (as 'South West Africa') until independence in 1990", "start_year": 1915, "end_year": 1990, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1915", "raw_end": "1990", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "namibia-1990-sam-nujoma", "country": "namibia", "country_name": "Namibia", "name": "Sam Nujoma", "title": "President", "start_year": 1990, "end_year": 2005, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "21 Mar 1990", "raw_end": "21 Mar 2005", "type": "Elected at independence", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "namibia-2005-hifikepunye-pohamba", "country": "namibia", "country_name": "Namibia", "name": "Hifikepunye Pohamba", "title": "President", "start_year": 2005, "end_year": 2015, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "21 Mar 2005", "raw_end": "21 Mar 2015", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "namibia-2015-hage-geingob", "country": "namibia", "country_name": "Namibia", "name": "Hage Geingob", "title": "President", "start_year": 2015, "end_year": 2024, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "21 Mar 2015", "raw_end": "4 Feb 2024", "type": "Died in office", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "namibia-2024-nangolo-mbumba", "country": "namibia", "country_name": "Namibia", "name": "Nangolo Mbumba", "title": "President", "start_year": 2024, "end_year": 2025, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "4 Feb 2024", "raw_end": "21 Mar 2025", "type": "Succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "namibia-2025-netumbo-nandi-ndaitwah", "country": "namibia", "country_name": "Namibia", "name": "Netumbo Nandi-Ndaitwah", "title": "President", "start_year": 2025, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "21 Mar 2025", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "niger-1800-fragmented-sultanate-of-damagaram-sultanate-of-agadez-zarma", "country": "niger", "country_name": "Niger", "name": "Fragmented: Sultanate of Damagaram, Sultanate of Agadez, Zarma chiefdoms and the Say Emirate", "title": "Multiple regional states", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1899, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1899", "type": "Fragmented kingdoms", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "niger-1899-france-conquest-of-damagaram-and-the-niger-river-valley", "country": "niger", "country_name": "Niger", "name": "France (conquest of Damagaram and the Niger river valley)", "title": "French military conquest", "start_year": 1899, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "July 1899", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Contested/conquest", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "niger-1900-france-niger-contested-saharan-north", "country": "niger", "country_name": "Niger", "name": "France (Niger, contested Saharan north)", "title": "Nominal French rule, ongoing Tuareg resistance", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1906, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1906", "type": "Contested/conquest", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "niger-1906-france-niger", "country": "niger", "country_name": "Niger", "name": "France (Niger)", "title": "Colonial rule (part of French West Africa)", "start_year": 1906, "end_year": 1960, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1906", "raw_end": "1960", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "niger-1960-hamani-diori", "country": "niger", "country_name": "Niger", "name": "Hamani Diori", "title": "President", "start_year": 1960, "end_year": 1974, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1960", "raw_end": "1974", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "niger-1974-seyni-kountche", "country": "niger", "country_name": "Niger", "name": "Seyni Kountché", "title": "President", "start_year": 1974, "end_year": 1987, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1974", "raw_end": "1987", "type": "Coup/died in office", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "niger-1987-ali-saibou", "country": "niger", "country_name": "Niger", "name": "Ali Saibou", "title": "Chairman, Supreme Military Council, then President", "start_year": 1987, "end_year": 1993, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "10 Nov 1987", "raw_end": "16 Apr 1993", "type": "Succession / handed over to elected government", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "niger-1993-mahamane-ousmane", "country": "niger", "country_name": "Niger", "name": "Mahamane Ousmane", "title": "President", "start_year": 1993, "end_year": 1996, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "16 Apr 1993", "raw_end": "27 Jan 1996", "type": "Elected; deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "niger-1996-ibrahim-bare-mainassara", "country": "niger", "country_name": "Niger", "name": "Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara", "title": "President", "start_year": 1996, "end_year": 1999, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "27 Jan 1996", "raw_end": "9 Apr 1999", "type": "Coup, self-legitimized via 1996 election; assassinated in coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "niger-1999-daouda-malam-wanke", "country": "niger", "country_name": "Niger", "name": "Daouda Malam Wanké", "title": "Chairman, National Reconciliation Council", "start_year": 1999, "end_year": 1999, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "9 Apr 1999", "raw_end": "22 Dec 1999", "type": "Coup, brief transitional tenure before handover to elected government", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "niger-1999-mamadou-tandja", "country": "niger", "country_name": "Niger", "name": "Mamadou Tandja", "title": "President", "start_year": 1999, "end_year": 2010, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "22 Dec 1999", "raw_end": "18 Feb 2010", "type": "Elected (1999, re-elected 2004); deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "niger-2010-salou-djibo", "country": "niger", "country_name": "Niger", "name": "Salou Djibo", "title": "Chairman, Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy", "start_year": 2010, "end_year": 2011, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "18 Feb 2010", "raw_end": "7 Apr 2011", "type": "Coup, then voluntary handover to elected civilian government", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "niger-2011-mahamadou-issoufou", "country": "niger", "country_name": "Niger", "name": "Mahamadou Issoufou", "title": "President", "start_year": 2011, "end_year": 2021, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "7 Apr 2011", "raw_end": "2 Apr 2021", "type": "Elected (2011, re-elected 2016); term-limited, voluntarily stepped down", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "niger-2021-mohamed-bazoum", "country": "niger", "country_name": "Niger", "name": "Mohamed Bazoum", "title": "President", "start_year": 2021, "end_year": 2023, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "2 Apr 2021", "raw_end": "26 Jul 2023", "type": "Elected; deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "niger-2023-abdourahamane-tchiani", "country": "niger", "country_name": "Niger", "name": "Abdourahamane Tchiani", "title": "President, National Council for the Safeguard of the Homeland (2023-25); President of the Republic (2025-present)", "start_year": 2023, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "28 Jul 2023", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Coup, then self-installed as transitional constitutional president", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "nigeria-1800-fragmented-hausa-city-states-oyo-empire-benin-kingdom-kanem", "country": "nigeria", "country_name": "Nigeria", "name": "Fragmented: Hausa city-states, Oyo Empire, Benin Kingdom, Kanem-Bornu and decentralized Igbo/Niger Delta societies", "title": "Pre-jihad political map", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1804, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1804", "type": "Fragmented/decentralized", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "nigeria-1804-sokoto-jihad-fulani-conquest-of-hausaland", "country": "nigeria", "country_name": "Nigeria", "name": "Sokoto Jihad: Fulani conquest of Hausaland", "title": "Usman dan Fodio's jihad", "start_year": 1804, "end_year": 1808, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "21 February 1804", "raw_end": "1808", "type": "Jihad conquest", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "nigeria-1808-sokoto-caliphate", "country": "nigeria", "country_name": "Nigeria", "name": "Sokoto Caliphate", "title": "Fulani Islamic caliphate (north); Oyo Empire disintegrating (southwest)", "start_year": 1808, "end_year": 1836, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1808", "raw_end": "1836", "type": "Precolonial caliphate", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "nigeria-1836-sokoto-caliphate", "country": "nigeria", "country_name": "Nigeria", "name": "Sokoto Caliphate", "title": "Fulani Islamic caliphate (north); fragmented Yoruba successor states (southwest)", "start_year": 1836, "end_year": 1893, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1836", "raw_end": "1893", "type": "Precolonial caliphate", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "nigeria-1893-sokoto-caliphate", "country": "nigeria", "country_name": "Nigeria", "name": "Sokoto Caliphate", "title": "Fulani Islamic caliphate (north); Bornu conquered by Rabih; Benin falls to Britain", "start_year": 1893, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1893", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Precolonial caliphate", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "nigeria-1900-sokoto-caliphate-final-conquest", "country": "nigeria", "country_name": "Nigeria", "name": "Sokoto Caliphate, final conquest", "title": "British conquest campaign; Bornu falls to France", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1903, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "27 July 1903", "type": "Contested/conquest", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "nigeria-1903-united-kingdom-northern-nigeria-protectorate-southern-nigeri", "country": "nigeria", "country_name": "Nigeria", "name": "United Kingdom (Northern Nigeria Protectorate / Southern Nigeria Protectorate)", "title": "Separate British protectorates prior to amalgamation", "start_year": 1903, "end_year": 1914, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1903", "raw_end": "1914", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "nigeria-1914-united-kingdom-colony-and-protectorate-of-nigeria", "country": "nigeria", "country_name": "Nigeria", "name": "United Kingdom (Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria)", "title": "Colonial rule (Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria, from the 1914 amalgamation)", "start_year": 1914, "end_year": 1960, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1914", "raw_end": "1960", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "nigeria-1960-tafawa-balewa", "country": "nigeria", "country_name": "Nigeria", "name": "Tafawa Balewa", "title": "PM", "start_year": 1960, "end_year": 1966, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1960", "raw_end": "1966", "type": "Assassinated in coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "nigeria-1963-nnamdi-azikiwe", "country": "nigeria", "country_name": "Nigeria", "name": "Nnamdi Azikiwe", "title": "President (ceremonial)", "start_year": 1963, "end_year": 1966, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1963", "raw_end": "1966", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "nigeria-1966-yakubu-gowon", "country": "nigeria", "country_name": "Nigeria", "name": "Yakubu Gowon", "title": "Head of State", "start_year": 1966, "end_year": 1975, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1966", "raw_end": "1975", "type": "Coup/deposed", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "nigeria-1966-johnson-aguiyi-ironsi", "country": "nigeria", "country_name": "Nigeria", "name": "Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi", "title": "Head of State", "start_year": 1966, "end_year": 1966, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1966", "raw_end": "1966", "type": "Coup/assassinated", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "nigeria-1975-murtala-mohammed", "country": "nigeria", "country_name": "Nigeria", "name": "Murtala Mohammed", "title": "Head of State", "start_year": 1975, "end_year": 1976, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1975", "raw_end": "1976", "type": "Coup/assassinated", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "nigeria-1976-olusegun-obasanjo", "country": "nigeria", "country_name": "Nigeria", "name": "Olusegun Obasanjo", "title": "Head of State", "start_year": 1976, "end_year": 1979, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1976", "raw_end": "1979", "type": "Handed to civilian rule", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "nigeria-1979-shehu-shagari", "country": "nigeria", "country_name": "Nigeria", "name": "Shehu Shagari", "title": "President", "start_year": 1979, "end_year": 1983, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1979", "raw_end": "1983", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "nigeria-1983-muhammadu-buhari", "country": "nigeria", "country_name": "Nigeria", "name": "Muhammadu Buhari", "title": "Head of State", "start_year": 1983, "end_year": 1985, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1983", "raw_end": "1985", "type": "Coup/deposed", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "nigeria-1985-ibrahim-babangida", "country": "nigeria", "country_name": "Nigeria", "name": "Ibrahim Babangida", "title": "Head of State", "start_year": 1985, "end_year": 1993, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1985", "raw_end": "1993", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "nigeria-1993-ernest-shonekan", "country": "nigeria", "country_name": "Nigeria", "name": "Ernest Shonekan", "title": "Head of State (Interim National Government)", "start_year": 1993, "end_year": 1993, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "26 Aug 1993", "raw_end": "17 Nov 1993", "type": "Interim civilian appointment by Babangida; deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "nigeria-1993-sani-abacha", "country": "nigeria", "country_name": "Nigeria", "name": "Sani Abacha", "title": "Head of State", "start_year": 1993, "end_year": 1998, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "17 Nov 1993", "raw_end": "8 Jun 1998", "type": "Coup; died in office", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "nigeria-1998-abdulsalami-abubakar", "country": "nigeria", "country_name": "Nigeria", "name": "Abdulsalami Abubakar", "title": "Head of State", "start_year": 1998, "end_year": 1999, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "9 Jun 1998", "raw_end": "29 May 1999", "type": "Succession after Abacha's death; organized transition to democracy", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "nigeria-1999-olusegun-obasanjo", "country": "nigeria", "country_name": "Nigeria", "name": "Olusegun Obasanjo", "title": "President", "start_year": 1999, "end_year": 2007, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "29 May 1999", "raw_end": "29 May 2007", "type": "Elected (1999, re-elected 2003); term-limited", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "nigeria-2007-umaru-musa-yar-adua", "country": "nigeria", "country_name": "Nigeria", "name": "Umaru Musa Yar'Adua", "title": "President", "start_year": 2007, "end_year": 2010, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "29 May 2007", "raw_end": "5 May 2010", "type": "Elected; died in office", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "nigeria-2010-goodluck-jonathan", "country": "nigeria", "country_name": "Nigeria", "name": "Goodluck Jonathan", "title": "President", "start_year": 2010, "end_year": 2015, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "6 May 2010", "raw_end": "29 May 2015", "type": "Constitutional succession (Vice President), then won 2011 election; lost re-election", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "nigeria-2015-muhammadu-buhari", "country": "nigeria", "country_name": "Nigeria", "name": "Muhammadu Buhari", "title": "President", "start_year": 2015, "end_year": 2023, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "29 May 2015", "raw_end": "29 May 2023", "type": "Elected (2015, re-elected 2019); term-limited", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "nigeria-2023-bola-tinubu", "country": "nigeria", "country_name": "Nigeria", "name": "Bola Tinubu", "title": "President", "start_year": 2023, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "29 May 2023", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "rwanda-1800-mibambwe-iii-sentabyo", "country": "rwanda", "country_name": "Rwanda", "name": "Mibambwe III Sentabyo", "title": "Mwami (King) of Rwanda", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1801, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "c. 1800", "raw_end": "c. 1801", "type": "Hereditary succession", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "rwanda-1801-yuhi-iv-gahindiro", "country": "rwanda", "country_name": "Rwanda", "name": "Yuhi IV Gahindiro", "title": "Mwami (King) of Rwanda", "start_year": 1801, "end_year": 1845, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "c. 1801", "raw_end": "c. 1845", "type": "Hereditary succession", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "rwanda-1845-mutara-ii-rwogera", "country": "rwanda", "country_name": "Rwanda", "name": "Mutara II Rwogera", "title": "Mwami (King) of Rwanda", "start_year": 1845, "end_year": 1867, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "c. 1845", "raw_end": "c. 1867", "type": "Hereditary succession", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "rwanda-1867-kigeli-iv-rwabugiri", "country": "rwanda", "country_name": "Rwanda", "name": "Kigeli IV Rwabugiri", "title": "Mwami (King) of Rwanda", "start_year": 1867, "end_year": 1895, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "c. 1867", "raw_end": "Sep 1895", "type": "Hereditary succession", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "rwanda-1895-mibambwe-iv-rutarindwa", "country": "rwanda", "country_name": "Rwanda", "name": "Mibambwe IV Rutarindwa", "title": "Mwami (King) of Rwanda", "start_year": 1895, "end_year": 1896, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "Sep 1895", "raw_end": "Dec 1896", "type": "Hereditary succession, deposed in palace coup", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "rwanda-1896-yuhi-v-musinga", "country": "rwanda", "country_name": "Rwanda", "name": "Yuhi V Musinga", "title": "Mwami (King) of Rwanda", "start_year": 1896, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "Dec 1896", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Installed by palace coup", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "rwanda-1900-germany-german-east-africa", "country": "rwanda", "country_name": "Rwanda", "name": "Germany (German East Africa)", "title": "Colonial rule (part of German East Africa)", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1916, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1916", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "rwanda-1916-belgium-military-occupation-of-ruanda", "country": "rwanda", "country_name": "Rwanda", "name": "Belgium (military occupation of Ruanda)", "title": "Belgian military occupation (Belgian Occupied East African Territories)", "start_year": 1916, "end_year": 1922, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "May 1916", "raw_end": "20 Jul 1922", "type": "Military occupation", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "rwanda-1922-belgium-ruanda-urundi", "country": "rwanda", "country_name": "Rwanda", "name": "Belgium (Ruanda-Urundi)", "title": "League of Nations mandate (Ruanda-Urundi)", "start_year": 1922, "end_year": 1962, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "20 Jul 1922", "raw_end": "1962", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "rwanda-1962-gregoire-kayibanda", "country": "rwanda", "country_name": "Rwanda", "name": "Grégoire Kayibanda", "title": "President", "start_year": 1962, "end_year": 1973, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1 Jul 1962", "raw_end": "5 Jul 1973", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "rwanda-1973-juvenal-habyarimana", "country": "rwanda", "country_name": "Rwanda", "name": "Juvénal Habyarimana", "title": "President", "start_year": 1973, "end_year": 1994, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "5 Jul 1973", "raw_end": "6 Apr 1994", "type": "Assassinated", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "rwanda-1994-theodore-sindikubwabo", "country": "rwanda", "country_name": "Rwanda", "name": "Théodore Sindikubwabo", "title": "Interim President", "start_year": 1994, "end_year": 1994, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "8 Apr 1994", "raw_end": "19 Jul 1994", "type": "Ousted", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "rwanda-1994-pasteur-bizimungu", "country": "rwanda", "country_name": "Rwanda", "name": "Pasteur Bizimungu", "title": "President", "start_year": 1994, "end_year": 2000, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "19 Jul 1994", "raw_end": "23 Mar 2000", "type": "Resigned", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "rwanda-2000-paul-kagame", "country": "rwanda", "country_name": "Rwanda", "name": "Paul Kagame", "title": "President", "start_year": 2000, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "22 Apr 2000", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sao-tome-and-principe-1800-portugal-sao-tome-and-principe", "country": "sao-tome-and-principe", "country_name": "São Tomé and Príncipe", "name": "Portugal (Sao Tome and Principe)", "title": "Colonial rule, pre-abolition era (continuous since the 1470s)", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1875, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1875", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sao-tome-and-principe-1875-portugal-sao-tome-and-principe", "country": "sao-tome-and-principe", "country_name": "São Tomé and Príncipe", "name": "Portugal (Sao Tome and Principe)", "title": "Colonial rule, roca plantation era", "start_year": 1875, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1875", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sao-tome-and-principe-1900-portugal-sao-tome-and-principe", "country": "sao-tome-and-principe", "country_name": "São Tomé and Príncipe", "name": "Portugal (São Tomé and Príncipe)", "title": "Colonial rule", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1975, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1975", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sao-tome-and-principe-1975-manuel-pinto-da-costa", "country": "sao-tome-and-principe", "country_name": "São Tomé and Príncipe", "name": "Manuel Pinto da Costa", "title": "President", "start_year": 1975, "end_year": 1991, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "12 Jul 1975", "raw_end": "4 Mar 1991", "type": "Elected (single-party)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sao-tome-and-principe-1991-leonel-mario-d-alva", "country": "sao-tome-and-principe", "country_name": "São Tomé and Príncipe", "name": "Leonel Mário d’Alva", "title": "Acting President", "start_year": 1991, "end_year": 1991, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "4 Mar 1991", "raw_end": "3 Apr 1991", "type": "Succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sao-tome-and-principe-1991-miguel-trovoada", "country": "sao-tome-and-principe", "country_name": "São Tomé and Príncipe", "name": "Miguel Trovoada", "title": "President", "start_year": 1991, "end_year": 2001, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "3 Apr 1991", "raw_end": "3 Sep 2001", "type": "Elected (briefly ousted in Aug 1995 coup, reinstated 21 Aug 1995)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sao-tome-and-principe-2001-fradique-de-menezes", "country": "sao-tome-and-principe", "country_name": "São Tomé and Príncipe", "name": "Fradique de Menezes", "title": "President", "start_year": 2001, "end_year": 2011, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "3 Sep 2001", "raw_end": "16 Jul 2003", "type": "Elected (briefly ousted in Jul 2003 coup, reinstated 23 Jul 2003)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sao-tome-and-principe-2011-manuel-pinto-da-costa", "country": "sao-tome-and-principe", "country_name": "São Tomé and Príncipe", "name": "Manuel Pinto da Costa", "title": "President", "start_year": 2011, "end_year": 2016, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "3 Sep 2011", "raw_end": "3 Sep 2016", "type": "Elected (second term)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sao-tome-and-principe-2016-evaristo-carvalho", "country": "sao-tome-and-principe", "country_name": "São Tomé and Príncipe", "name": "Evaristo Carvalho", "title": "President", "start_year": 2016, "end_year": 2021, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "3 Sep 2016", "raw_end": "2 Oct 2021", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sao-tome-and-principe-2021-carlos-vila-nova", "country": "sao-tome-and-principe", "country_name": "São Tomé and Príncipe", "name": "Carlos Vila Nova", "title": "President", "start_year": 2021, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "2 Oct 2021", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "senegal-1800-fragmented-wolof-kingdoms-and-futa-toro", "country": "senegal", "country_name": "Senegal", "name": "Fragmented: Wolof kingdoms and Futa Toro", "title": "Independent Wolof kingdoms and Fulani Futa Toro", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1854, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1854", "type": "Fragmented kingdoms", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "senegal-1854-contested-frontier-french-conquest-under-faidherbe-vs-lat-di", "country": "senegal", "country_name": "Senegal", "name": "Contested-frontier: French conquest under Faidherbe vs. Lat Dior and the Wolof kingdoms", "title": "French military expansion and Wolof resistance", "start_year": 1854, "end_year": 1886, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1854", "raw_end": "1886", "type": "Contested/conquest", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "senegal-1886-france-senegal-consolidation", "country": "senegal", "country_name": "Senegal", "name": "France (Senegal, consolidation)", "title": "French colonial consolidation", "start_year": 1886, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1886", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Colonial conquest/protectorate", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "senegal-1900-france-senegal", "country": "senegal", "country_name": "Senegal", "name": "France (Senegal)", "title": "Colonial rule (part of French West Africa)", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1960, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1960", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "senegal-1960-leopold-sedar-senghor", "country": "senegal", "country_name": "Senegal", "name": "Léopold Sédar Senghor", "title": "President", "start_year": 1960, "end_year": 1980, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1960", "raw_end": "1980", "type": "Voluntary resignation", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "senegal-1981-abdou-diouf", "country": "senegal", "country_name": "Senegal", "name": "Abdou Diouf", "title": "President", "start_year": 1981, "end_year": 2000, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1981", "raw_end": "2000", "type": "Succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "senegal-2000-abdoulaye-wade", "country": "senegal", "country_name": "Senegal", "name": "Abdoulaye Wade", "title": "President", "start_year": 2000, "end_year": 2012, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1 Apr 2000", "raw_end": "2 Apr 2012", "type": "Elected (2000, re-elected 2007); lost re-election, conceded", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "senegal-2012-macky-sall", "country": "senegal", "country_name": "Senegal", "name": "Macky Sall", "title": "President", "start_year": 2012, "end_year": 2024, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "2 Apr 2012", "raw_end": "2 Apr 2024", "type": "Elected (2012, re-elected 2019); term-limited", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "senegal-2024-bassirou-diomaye-faye", "country": "senegal", "country_name": "Senegal", "name": "Bassirou Diomaye Faye", "title": "President", "start_year": 2024, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "2 Apr 2024", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "seychelles-1800-france-seychelles-under-queau-de-quincy", "country": "seychelles", "country_name": "Seychelles", "name": "France (Seychelles, under Queau de Quincy)", "title": "French colonial administration", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1810, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1810", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "seychelles-1810-united-kingdom-seychelles", "country": "seychelles", "country_name": "Seychelles", "name": "United Kingdom (Seychelles)", "title": "British colonial rule", "start_year": 1810, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1810", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "seychelles-1900-united-kingdom-seychelles", "country": "seychelles", "country_name": "Seychelles", "name": "United Kingdom (Seychelles)", "title": "Colonial rule", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1976, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1976", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "seychelles-1976-james-mancham", "country": "seychelles", "country_name": "Seychelles", "name": "James Mancham", "title": "President", "start_year": 1976, "end_year": 1977, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "29 Jun 1976", "raw_end": "5 Jun 1977", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "seychelles-1977-france-albert-rene", "country": "seychelles", "country_name": "Seychelles", "name": "France-Albert René", "title": "President", "start_year": 1977, "end_year": 2004, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "5 Jun 1977", "raw_end": "14 Jul 2004", "type": "Voluntary resignation", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "seychelles-2004-james-michel", "country": "seychelles", "country_name": "Seychelles", "name": "James Michel", "title": "President", "start_year": 2004, "end_year": 2016, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "14 Jul 2004", "raw_end": "16 Oct 2016", "type": "Voluntary resignation", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "seychelles-2016-danny-faure", "country": "seychelles", "country_name": "Seychelles", "name": "Danny Faure", "title": "President", "start_year": 2016, "end_year": 2020, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "16 Oct 2016", "raw_end": "26 Oct 2020", "type": "Voted out", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "seychelles-2020-wavel-ramkalawan", "country": "seychelles", "country_name": "Seychelles", "name": "Wavel Ramkalawan", "title": "President", "start_year": 2020, "end_year": 2025, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "26 Oct 2020", "raw_end": "26 Oct 2025", "type": "Voted out", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "seychelles-2025-patrick-herminie", "country": "seychelles", "country_name": "Seychelles", "name": "Patrick Herminie", "title": "President", "start_year": 2025, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "26 Oct 2025", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sierra-leone-1800-fragmented-temne-mende-and-limba-chiefdoms", "country": "sierra-leone", "country_name": "Sierra Leone", "name": "Fragmented: Temne, Mende and Limba chiefdoms", "title": "Independent interior chiefdoms; small British coastal colony", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1896, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1896", "type": "Fragmented/decentralized", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sierra-leone-1896-united-kingdom-protectorate-declared-hut-tax-war", "country": "sierra-leone", "country_name": "Sierra Leone", "name": "United Kingdom (Protectorate declared; Hut Tax War)", "title": "British protectorate and armed resistance", "start_year": 1896, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1896", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Colonial conquest/protectorate", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sierra-leone-1900-united-kingdom-sierra-leone-colony-and-protectorate", "country": "sierra-leone", "country_name": "Sierra Leone", "name": "United Kingdom (Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate)", "title": "Colonial rule (Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate)", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1961, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1961", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sierra-leone-1961-milton-margai", "country": "sierra-leone", "country_name": "Sierra Leone", "name": "Milton Margai", "title": "PM", "start_year": 1961, "end_year": 1964, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "27 Apr 1961", "raw_end": "28 Apr 1964", "type": "Died in office", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sierra-leone-1964-albert-margai", "country": "sierra-leone", "country_name": "Sierra Leone", "name": "Albert Margai", "title": "Prime Minister", "start_year": 1964, "end_year": 1967, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "Apr 1964", "raw_end": "21 Mar 1967", "type": "Succession / lost election", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sierra-leone-1967-siaka-stevens", "country": "sierra-leone", "country_name": "Sierra Leone", "name": "Siaka Stevens", "title": "Prime Minister", "start_year": 1967, "end_year": 1967, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "21 Mar 1967", "raw_end": "21 Mar 1967", "type": "Appointed / deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sierra-leone-1967-david-lansana", "country": "sierra-leone", "country_name": "Sierra Leone", "name": "David Lansana", "title": "Army chief (military takeover)", "start_year": 1967, "end_year": 1967, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "21 Mar 1967", "raw_end": "23 Mar 1967", "type": "Military takeover / deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sierra-leone-1967-national-reformation-council-andrew-juxon-smith", "country": "sierra-leone", "country_name": "Sierra Leone", "name": "National Reformation Council (Andrew Juxon-Smith)", "title": "Military junta, chaired by Andrew Juxon-Smith from late March 1967", "start_year": 1967, "end_year": 1968, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "23 Mar 1967", "raw_end": "18 Apr 1968", "type": "Coup / deposed by counter-coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sierra-leone-1968-national-interim-council", "country": "sierra-leone", "country_name": "Sierra Leone", "name": "National Interim Council", "title": "Military council after the April 1968 counter-coup", "start_year": 1968, "end_year": 1968, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "18 Apr 1968", "raw_end": "26 Apr 1968", "type": "Counter-coup / handed power to civilians", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sierra-leone-1968-siaka-stevens", "country": "sierra-leone", "country_name": "Sierra Leone", "name": "Siaka Stevens", "title": "PM/President", "start_year": 1968, "end_year": 1985, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "26 Apr 1968", "raw_end": "28 Nov 1985", "type": "Voluntary resignation", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sierra-leone-1985-joseph-saidu-momoh", "country": "sierra-leone", "country_name": "Sierra Leone", "name": "Joseph Saidu Momoh", "title": "President", "start_year": 1985, "end_year": 1992, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1985", "raw_end": "1992", "type": "Deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sierra-leone-1992-yahya-kanu", "country": "sierra-leone", "country_name": "Sierra Leone", "name": "Yahya Kanu", "title": "Chairman, National Provisional Ruling Council", "start_year": 1992, "end_year": 1992, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "29 Apr 1992", "raw_end": "1 May 1992", "type": "Coup; nominal head for two days before internal power struggle", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sierra-leone-1992-valentine-strasser", "country": "sierra-leone", "country_name": "Sierra Leone", "name": "Valentine Strasser", "title": "Chairman, National Provisional Ruling Council", "start_year": 1992, "end_year": 1996, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1 May 1992", "raw_end": "16 Jan 1996", "type": "Coup; deposed by internal palace coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sierra-leone-1996-julius-maada-bio", "country": "sierra-leone", "country_name": "Sierra Leone", "name": "Julius Maada Bio", "title": "Chairman, Supreme Council of State", "start_year": 1996, "end_year": 1996, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "16 Jan 1996", "raw_end": "29 Mar 1996", "type": "Palace coup against Strasser; handed power to elected civilian government", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sierra-leone-1996-ahmad-tejan-kabbah", "country": "sierra-leone", "country_name": "Sierra Leone", "name": "Ahmad Tejan Kabbah", "title": "President", "start_year": 1996, "end_year": 1997, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "29 Mar 1996", "raw_end": "25 May 1997", "type": "Elected; deposed by coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sierra-leone-1997-johnny-paul-koroma", "country": "sierra-leone", "country_name": "Sierra Leone", "name": "Johnny Paul Koroma", "title": "Chairman, Armed Forces Revolutionary Council", "start_year": 1997, "end_year": 1998, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "25 May 1997", "raw_end": "12 Feb 1998", "type": "Coup (in alliance with RUF); ousted by Nigerian-led ECOMOG intervention", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sierra-leone-1998-ahmad-tejan-kabbah", "country": "sierra-leone", "country_name": "Sierra Leone", "name": "Ahmad Tejan Kabbah", "title": "President", "start_year": 1998, "end_year": 2007, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "13 Feb 1998", "raw_end": "17 Sep 2007", "type": "Restored by ECOMOG military intervention; re-elected 2002; term-limited", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sierra-leone-2007-ernest-bai-koroma", "country": "sierra-leone", "country_name": "Sierra Leone", "name": "Ernest Bai Koroma", "title": "President", "start_year": 2007, "end_year": 2018, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "17 Sep 2007", "raw_end": "4 Apr 2018", "type": "Elected (2007, re-elected 2012); term-limited", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sierra-leone-2018-julius-maada-bio", "country": "sierra-leone", "country_name": "Sierra Leone", "name": "Julius Maada Bio", "title": "President", "start_year": 2018, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "4 Apr 2018", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Elected (2018, re-elected 2023)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "somalia-1800-decentralized-somali-pastoral-clan-territory-geledi-sultanat", "country": "somalia", "country_name": "Somalia", "name": "Decentralized: Somali pastoral clan territory (Geledi Sultanate dominant in the south)", "title": "No single national government", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1878, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1878", "type": "Decentralized clan territory with regional sultanate", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "decentralized", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "somalia-1878-decentralized-somali-pastoral-clan-territory-majeerteen-and", "country": "somalia", "country_name": "Somalia", "name": "Decentralized: Somali pastoral clan territory (Majeerteen and Hobyo sultanates emerge)", "title": "No single national government", "start_year": 1878, "end_year": 1889, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1878", "raw_end": "1889", "type": "Decentralized clan territory with regional sultanates", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "decentralized", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "somalia-1889-decentralized-somali-pastoral-clan-territory-majeerteen-hoby", "country": "somalia", "country_name": "Somalia", "name": "Decentralized: Somali pastoral clan territory (Majeerteen/Hobyo under nominal Italian protectorate treaties)", "title": "No single national government", "start_year": 1889, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1889", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Nominal protectorate treaties, real autonomy retained", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "decentralized", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "somalia-1900-italy-italian-somaliland", "country": "somalia", "country_name": "Somalia", "name": "Italy (Italian Somaliland)", "title": "Colonial rule (Italian Somaliland), part of Italian East Africa from 1936; interrupted by British military administration 1941-1950 after Italy's WWII defeat; then UN Trust Territory under Italian administration (AFIS) 1950-1960", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1960, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1960", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "somalia-1960-aden-abdullah-osman-daar", "country": "somalia", "country_name": "Somalia", "name": "Aden Abdullah Osman Daar", "title": "President", "start_year": 1960, "end_year": 1967, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1 Jul 1960", "raw_end": "10 Jun 1967", "type": "Voted out", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "somalia-1967-abdirashid-ali-shermarke", "country": "somalia", "country_name": "Somalia", "name": "Abdirashid Ali Shermarke", "title": "President", "start_year": 1967, "end_year": 1969, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "10 Jun 1967", "raw_end": "15 Oct 1969", "type": "Assassinated", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "somalia-1969-sheikh-mukhtar-mohamed-hussein", "country": "somalia", "country_name": "Somalia", "name": "Sheikh Mukhtar Mohamed Hussein", "title": "Acting President", "start_year": 1969, "end_year": 1969, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "15 Oct 1969", "raw_end": "21 Oct 1969", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "somalia-1969-siad-barre", "country": "somalia", "country_name": "Somalia", "name": "Siad Barre", "title": "President", "start_year": 1969, "end_year": 1991, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "21 Oct 1969", "raw_end": "26 Jan 1991", "type": "Overthrown", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "somalia-1991-ali-mahdi-muhammad", "country": "somalia", "country_name": "Somalia", "name": "Ali Mahdi Muhammad", "title": "President (self-declared, internationally contested)", "start_year": 1991, "end_year": 1997, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "Jan 1991", "raw_end": "1997", "type": "Contested/no government", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "somalia-1997-no-central-government", "country": "somalia", "country_name": "Somalia", "name": "No central government", "title": "Presidency vacant; National Salvation Council with five co-chairmen", "start_year": 1997, "end_year": 2000, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1997", "raw_end": "27 Aug 2000", "type": "No central government", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "somalia-2000-abdiqasim-salad-hassan", "country": "somalia", "country_name": "Somalia", "name": "Abdiqasim Salad Hassan", "title": "President (Transitional National Government)", "start_year": 2000, "end_year": 2004, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "27 Aug 2000", "raw_end": "14 Oct 2004", "type": "Transition ended", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "somalia-2004-abdullahi-yusuf-ahmed", "country": "somalia", "country_name": "Somalia", "name": "Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed", "title": "President (Transitional Federal Government)", "start_year": 2004, "end_year": 2008, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "14 Oct 2004", "raw_end": "29 Dec 2008", "type": "Resigned", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "somalia-2009-sharif-sheikh-ahmed", "country": "somalia", "country_name": "Somalia", "name": "Sharif Sheikh Ahmed", "title": "President (Transitional Federal Government)", "start_year": 2009, "end_year": 2012, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "31 Jan 2009", "raw_end": "20 Aug 2012", "type": "Transition ended", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "somalia-2012-hassan-sheikh-mohamud-1st-term", "country": "somalia", "country_name": "Somalia", "name": "Hassan Sheikh Mohamud (1st term)", "title": "President", "start_year": 2012, "end_year": 2017, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "16 Sep 2012", "raw_end": "16 Feb 2017", "type": "Lost election", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "somalia-2017-mohamed-abdullahi-mohamed-farmajo", "country": "somalia", "country_name": "Somalia", "name": "Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed (Farmajo)", "title": "President", "start_year": 2017, "end_year": 2022, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "16 Feb 2017", "raw_end": "23 May 2022", "type": "Lost election", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "somalia-2022-hassan-sheikh-mohamud-2nd-term", "country": "somalia", "country_name": "Somalia", "name": "Hassan Sheikh Mohamud (2nd term)", "title": "President", "start_year": 2022, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "23 May 2022", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-africa-1800-british-cape-colony", "country": "south-africa", "country_name": "South Africa", "name": "British Cape Colony", "title": "Settler colonial administration", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1816, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1816", "type": "Settler colonial administration", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-africa-1816-zulu-kingdom", "country": "south-africa", "country_name": "South Africa", "name": "Zulu Kingdom", "title": "Founding and expansion under Shaka", "start_year": 1816, "end_year": 1828, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1816", "raw_end": "1828", "type": "Hereditary monarchy, military conquest state", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-africa-1828-zulu-kingdom", "country": "south-africa", "country_name": "South Africa", "name": "Zulu Kingdom", "title": "Under Dingane and early Mpande", "start_year": 1828, "end_year": 1840, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1828", "raw_end": "1840", "type": "Hereditary monarchy", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-africa-1840-natalia-republic-and-forming-boer-republics", "country": "south-africa", "country_name": "South Africa", "name": "Natalia Republic and forming Boer republics", "title": "Voortrekker settler republics", "start_year": 1840, "end_year": 1852, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1840", "raw_end": "1852", "type": "Settler republic (Boer)", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "settler-republic", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-africa-1852-zulu-kingdom", "country": "south-africa", "country_name": "South Africa", "name": "Zulu Kingdom", "title": "Under Mpande and Cetshwayo, to the Anglo-Zulu War", "start_year": 1852, "end_year": 1879, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1852", "raw_end": "1879", "type": "Hereditary monarchy", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-africa-1879-south-african-republic-transvaal-and-orange-free-state", "country": "south-africa", "country_name": "South Africa", "name": "South African Republic (Transvaal) and Orange Free State", "title": "Boer republics, gold and diamonds era", "start_year": 1879, "end_year": 1899, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1879", "raw_end": "1899", "type": "Settler republic (Boer)", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "settler-republic", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-africa-1899-contested-frontier-second-anglo-boer-war", "country": "south-africa", "country_name": "South Africa", "name": "Contested frontier: Second Anglo-Boer War", "title": "War and annexation of the Boer republics", "start_year": 1899, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1899", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Conquest, contested frontier", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-africa-1900-united-kingdom-cape-natal-transvaal-orange-river-colonies", "country": "south-africa", "country_name": "South Africa", "name": "United Kingdom (Cape, Natal, Transvaal & Orange River Colonies)", "title": "Colonial rule (Cape, Natal, Transvaal, Orange River colonies)", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1910, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1910", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-africa-1910-united-kingdom-union-of-south-africa", "country": "south-africa", "country_name": "South Africa", "name": "United Kingdom (Union of South Africa)", "title": "Self-governing dominion (Union of South Africa)", "start_year": 1910, "end_year": 1931, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1910", "raw_end": "1931", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-africa-1931-union-of-south-africa", "country": "south-africa", "country_name": "South Africa", "name": "Union of South Africa", "title": "Fully sovereign under Statute of Westminster, remained in Commonwealth until 1961 republic", "start_year": 1931, "end_year": 1958, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1931", "raw_end": "1958", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-africa-1958-hendrik-verwoerd", "country": "south-africa", "country_name": "South Africa", "name": "Hendrik Verwoerd", "title": "Prime Minister", "start_year": 1958, "end_year": 1966, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1958", "raw_end": "1966", "type": "Assassinated", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": true }, { "id": "south-africa-1966-john-vorster", "country": "south-africa", "country_name": "South Africa", "name": "John Vorster", "title": "PM then State President", "start_year": 1966, "end_year": 1978, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1966 / 1978", "raw_end": "1978 / 1979", "type": "Succession then resigned", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": true }, { "id": "south-africa-1978-p-w-botha", "country": "south-africa", "country_name": "South Africa", "name": "P.W. Botha", "title": "PM then State President", "start_year": 1978, "end_year": 1989, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1978 / 1984", "raw_end": "1989", "type": "Succession then resigned after stroke", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": true }, { "id": "south-africa-1989-f-w-de-klerk", "country": "south-africa", "country_name": "South Africa", "name": "F.W. de Klerk", "title": "State President", "start_year": 1989, "end_year": 1994, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1989", "raw_end": "1994", "type": "Succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": true }, { "id": "south-africa-1994-nelson-mandela", "country": "south-africa", "country_name": "South Africa", "name": "Nelson Mandela", "title": "President", "start_year": 1994, "end_year": 1999, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "10 May 1994", "raw_end": "14 June 1999", "type": "Elected (first democratic, non-racial election)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-africa-1999-thabo-mbeki", "country": "south-africa", "country_name": "South Africa", "name": "Thabo Mbeki", "title": "President", "start_year": 1999, "end_year": 2008, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "14 June 1999", "raw_end": "24 September 2008", "type": "Elected, then resigned under party recall", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-africa-2008-kgalema-motlanthe", "country": "south-africa", "country_name": "South Africa", "name": "Kgalema Motlanthe", "title": "President (caretaker)", "start_year": 2008, "end_year": 2009, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "25 September 2008", "raw_end": "9 May 2009", "type": "Succession (parliamentary caretaker, to complete Mbeki's term)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-africa-2009-jacob-zuma", "country": "south-africa", "country_name": "South Africa", "name": "Jacob Zuma", "title": "President", "start_year": 2009, "end_year": 2018, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "9 May 2009", "raw_end": "14 February 2018", "type": "Elected, then resigned under party recall", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-africa-2018-cyril-ramaphosa", "country": "south-africa", "country_name": "South Africa", "name": "Cyril Ramaphosa", "title": "President", "start_year": 2018, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "15 February 2018", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Succession (as Deputy President), then twice elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-sudan-1800-decentralized-no-central-authority", "country": "south-sudan", "country_name": "South Sudan", "name": "Decentralized: no central authority", "title": "Stateless and segmentary societies of the southern Nile basin", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1854, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1854", "type": "Stateless/segmentary societies", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "decentralized", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-sudan-1854-contested-frontier-turco-egyptian-slave-and-ivory-trade-fron", "country": "south-sudan", "country_name": "South Sudan", "name": "Contested frontier: Turco-Egyptian slave and ivory trade frontier", "title": "Zariba-based private trader rule", "start_year": 1854, "end_year": 1871, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1854", "raw_end": "26 May 1871", "type": "Slave-trade frontier / private warlord rule", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-sudan-1871-egypt-khedivate-equatoria-and-bahr-el-ghazal-provinces", "country": "south-sudan", "country_name": "South Sudan", "name": "Egypt (Khedivate) - Equatoria and Bahr el Ghazal provinces", "title": "Ottoman-Egyptian colonial administration", "start_year": 1871, "end_year": 1885, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "26 May 1871", "raw_end": "26 Jan 1885", "type": "Ottoman-Egyptian colonial administration", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-sudan-1885-fragmented-isolated-equatoria-remnant-mahdist-claims-and-loc", "country": "south-sudan", "country_name": "South Sudan", "name": "Fragmented: isolated Equatoria remnant, Mahdist claims, and local polities", "title": "Collapse of central authority after the fall of Khartoum", "start_year": 1885, "end_year": 1898, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1885", "raw_end": "1898", "type": "Fragmented/isolated remnant administration", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "fragmented", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-sudan-1898-contested-frontier-anglo-egyptian-reconquest-and-the-fashoda", "country": "south-sudan", "country_name": "South Sudan", "name": "Contested frontier: Anglo-Egyptian reconquest and the Fashoda Incident", "title": "Reconquest of the south and the Anglo-French Fashoda standoff", "start_year": 1898, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "2 Sep 1898", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Colonial conquest/annexation", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-sudan-1900-united-kingdom-egypt", "country": "south-sudan", "country_name": "South Sudan", "name": "United Kingdom / Egypt", "title": "Anglo-Egyptian Condominium", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1956, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1 Jan 1956", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-sudan-1956-part-of-the-republic-of-the-sudan", "country": "south-sudan", "country_name": "South Sudan", "name": "Part of the Republic of the Sudan", "title": "Southern provinces of independent Sudan", "start_year": 1956, "end_year": 1972, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1 Jan 1956", "raw_end": "28 Feb 1972", "type": "Part of Sudan / civil war", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-sudan-1972-abel-alier", "country": "south-sudan", "country_name": "South Sudan", "name": "Abel Alier", "title": "President of the High Executive Council (Southern Sudan Autonomous Region)", "start_year": 1972, "end_year": 1978, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "6 Apr 1972", "raw_end": "Feb 1978", "type": "Regional executive (autonomous region)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-sudan-1978-joseph-lagu", "country": "south-sudan", "country_name": "South Sudan", "name": "Joseph Lagu", "title": "President of the High Executive Council (Southern Sudan Autonomous Region)", "start_year": 1978, "end_year": 1979, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "Feb 1978", "raw_end": "12 Jul 1979", "type": "Regional executive (autonomous region)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-sudan-1979-peter-gatkuoth-gual", "country": "south-sudan", "country_name": "South Sudan", "name": "Peter Gatkuoth Gual", "title": "President of the High Executive Council (Southern Sudan Autonomous Region)", "start_year": 1979, "end_year": 1980, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "12 Jul 1979", "raw_end": "30 May 1980", "type": "Regional executive (autonomous region)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-sudan-1980-abel-alier", "country": "south-sudan", "country_name": "South Sudan", "name": "Abel Alier", "title": "President of the High Executive Council (Southern Sudan Autonomous Region)", "start_year": 1980, "end_year": 1981, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "30 May 1980", "raw_end": "5 Oct 1981", "type": "Regional executive (autonomous region)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-sudan-1981-gismalla-abdalla-rassas", "country": "south-sudan", "country_name": "South Sudan", "name": "Gismalla Abdalla Rassas", "title": "President of the High Executive Council (Southern Sudan Autonomous Region)", "start_year": 1981, "end_year": 1982, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "5 Oct 1981", "raw_end": "23 Jun 1982", "type": "Regional executive (autonomous region)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-sudan-1982-joseph-james-tombura", "country": "south-sudan", "country_name": "South Sudan", "name": "Joseph James Tombura", "title": "President of the High Executive Council (Southern Sudan Autonomous Region)", "start_year": 1982, "end_year": 1983, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "23 Jun 1982", "raw_end": "5 Jun 1983", "type": "Regional executive (autonomous region)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-sudan-1983-part-of-the-republic-of-the-sudan", "country": "south-sudan", "country_name": "South Sudan", "name": "Part of the Republic of the Sudan", "title": "Southern provinces of Sudan (Second Sudanese Civil War)", "start_year": 1983, "end_year": 2005, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "5 Jun 1983", "raw_end": "9 Jul 2005", "type": "Part of Sudan / civil war", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-sudan-2005-john-garang", "country": "south-sudan", "country_name": "South Sudan", "name": "John Garang", "title": "President of the Government of Southern Sudan", "start_year": 2005, "end_year": 2005, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "9 Jul 2005", "raw_end": "30 Jul 2005", "type": "Comprehensive Peace Agreement / died in office", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-sudan-2005-salva-kiir-mayardit", "country": "south-sudan", "country_name": "South Sudan", "name": "Salva Kiir Mayardit", "title": "President of the Government of Southern Sudan", "start_year": 2005, "end_year": 2011, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "2005", "raw_end": "9 Jul 2011", "type": "Succession / independence", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "south-sudan-2011-salva-kiir-mayardit", "country": "south-sudan", "country_name": "South Sudan", "name": "Salva Kiir Mayardit", "title": "President", "start_year": 2011, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "9 July 2011", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Transition from autonomous-region presidency at independence, then war/peace-deal continuity", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sudan-1800-funj-sultanate-sennar", "country": "sudan", "country_name": "Sudan", "name": "Funj Sultanate (Sennar)", "title": "Declining Islamic sultanate of the central Nile valley", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1821, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1821", "type": "Islamic sultanate (declining)", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sudan-1821-egypt-khedivate-turco-egyptian-rule", "country": "sudan", "country_name": "Sudan", "name": "Egypt (Khedivate) - Turco-Egyptian rule", "title": "Ottoman-Egyptian colonial administration (the Turkiyah)", "start_year": 1821, "end_year": 1881, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1821", "raw_end": "1881", "type": "Ottoman-Egyptian colonial administration", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sudan-1881-contested-frontier-mahdist-uprising-against-turco-egyptian-r", "country": "sudan", "country_name": "Sudan", "name": "Contested frontier: Mahdist uprising against Turco-Egyptian rule", "title": "Religious revolt overturning Egyptian administration", "start_year": 1881, "end_year": 1885, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1881", "raw_end": "26 Jan 1885", "type": "Religious/revolutionary uprising", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sudan-1885-mahdist-state", "country": "sudan", "country_name": "Sudan", "name": "Mahdist State", "title": "Islamic state under the Khalifa Abdallahi (from Omdurman)", "start_year": 1885, "end_year": 1898, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1885", "raw_end": "2 Sep 1898", "type": "Islamic state (Mahdist)", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sudan-1898-contested-frontier-anglo-egyptian-reconquest", "country": "sudan", "country_name": "Sudan", "name": "Contested frontier: Anglo-Egyptian reconquest", "title": "Final conquest and establishment of the Condominium", "start_year": 1898, "end_year": 1899, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "2 Sep 1898", "raw_end": "19 Jan 1899", "type": "Colonial conquest/annexation", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sudan-1899-united-kingdom-egypt", "country": "sudan", "country_name": "Sudan", "name": "United Kingdom / Egypt", "title": "Anglo-Egyptian Condominium", "start_year": 1899, "end_year": 1956, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1899", "raw_end": "1956", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sudan-1956-sovereignty-council-first-5-member-supreme-commission", "country": "sudan", "country_name": "Sudan", "name": "Sovereignty Council (First): 5-member Supreme Commission", "title": "Collective Head of State", "start_year": 1956, "end_year": 1958, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1 Jan 1956", "raw_end": "17 Nov 1958", "type": "Transitional/Collective", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sudan-1958-ibrahim-abboud", "country": "sudan", "country_name": "Sudan", "name": "Ibrahim Abboud", "title": "Chairman, Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (President)", "start_year": 1958, "end_year": 1964, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "17 Nov 1958", "raw_end": "15 Nov 1964", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sudan-1964-sirr-al-khatim-al-khalifa", "country": "sudan", "country_name": "Sudan", "name": "Sirr Al-Khatim Al-Khalifa", "title": "Transitional Prime Minister (head of government); also Acting President 16 Nov-3 Dec 1964", "start_year": 1964, "end_year": 1965, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "30 Oct 1964", "raw_end": "2 Jun 1965", "type": "Transitional/Appointed", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sudan-1965-ismail-al-azhari", "country": "sudan", "country_name": "Sudan", "name": "Ismail al-Azhari", "title": "Chairman/President, Supreme Council (head of state)", "start_year": 1965, "end_year": 1969, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "10 Jun 1965", "raw_end": "25 May 1969", "type": "Elected (indirect, by Constituent Assembly)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sudan-1969-gaafar-nimeiry", "country": "sudan", "country_name": "Sudan", "name": "Gaafar Nimeiry", "title": "President (Chairman, Revolutionary Command Council 1969-71)", "start_year": 1969, "end_year": 1985, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "25 May 1969", "raw_end": "6 Apr 1985", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sudan-1971-babikir-al-nur-osman", "country": "sudan", "country_name": "Sudan", "name": "Babikir al-Nur Osman", "title": "Chairman, Revolutionary Command Council (self-declared)", "start_year": 1971, "end_year": 1971, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "19 Jul 1971", "raw_end": "22 Jul 1971", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sudan-1985-abdel-rahman-swar-al-dahab", "country": "sudan", "country_name": "Sudan", "name": "Abdel Rahman Swar al-Dahab", "title": "Chairman, Transitional Military Council", "start_year": 1985, "end_year": 1986, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "6 Apr 1985", "raw_end": "6 May 1986", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sudan-1986-ahmed-al-mirghani", "country": "sudan", "country_name": "Sudan", "name": "Ahmed al-Mirghani", "title": "President / Chairman, Supreme Council (head of state)", "start_year": 1986, "end_year": 1989, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "6 May 1986", "raw_end": "30 Jun 1989", "type": "Elected (indirect)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sudan-1986-sadiq-al-mahdi", "country": "sudan", "country_name": "Sudan", "name": "Sadiq al-Mahdi", "title": "Prime Minister (head of government; al-Mirghani held the head-of-state presidency concurrently)", "start_year": 1986, "end_year": 1989, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "6 May 1986", "raw_end": "30 Jun 1989", "type": "Elected/Deposed", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sudan-1989-omar-al-bashir", "country": "sudan", "country_name": "Sudan", "name": "Omar al-Bashir", "title": "Chairman, Revolutionary Command Council for National Salvation (1989-93), then President", "start_year": 1989, "end_year": 2019, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "30 Jun 1989", "raw_end": "11 Apr 2019", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sudan-2019-ahmed-awad-ibn-auf", "country": "sudan", "country_name": "Sudan", "name": "Ahmed Awad Ibn Auf", "title": "TMC Chairman", "start_year": 2019, "end_year": 2019, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "11 Apr 2019", "raw_end": "12 Apr 2019", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "sudan-2019-abdel-fattah-al-burhan", "country": "sudan", "country_name": "Sudan", "name": "Abdel Fattah al-Burhan", "title": "Chairman, Transitional Sovereignty Council", "start_year": 2019, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "12 Apr 2019", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "tanzania-1800-decentralized-interior-trade-polities-nyamwezi-and-others-ea", "country": "tanzania", "country_name": "Tanzania", "name": "Decentralized: interior trade polities (Nyamwezi and others), early Zanzibari coastal trade presence", "title": "No single centralized government", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1840, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1840", "type": "Decentralized interior; coastal trade contacts", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "decentralized", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "tanzania-1840-zanzibar-sultanate-coastal-commercial-suzerainty-with-decent", "country": "tanzania", "country_name": "Tanzania", "name": "Zanzibar Sultanate (coastal/commercial suzerainty) with decentralized interior (Nyamwezi trade polities, incl. Mirambo)", "title": "Sultan of Zanzibar (coastal); no centralized interior government", "start_year": 1840, "end_year": 1884, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1840", "raw_end": "1884", "type": "Coastal commercial suzerainty; interior fragmented", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "decentralized", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "tanzania-1884-contested-frontier-german-conquest-of-the-tanganyika-interio", "country": "tanzania", "country_name": "Tanzania", "name": "Contested frontier: German conquest of the Tanganyika interior; Zanzibar's mainland claims transferred to Germany", "title": "Contested colonial conquest", "start_year": 1884, "end_year": 1900, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1884", "raw_end": "1900", "type": "Colonial conquest and consolidation", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "tanzania-1900-germany-german-east-africa", "country": "tanzania", "country_name": "Tanzania", "name": "Germany (German East Africa)", "title": "Colonial rule (German East Africa)", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1916, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1916", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "tanzania-1916-united-kingdom-occupied-german-east-africa", "country": "tanzania", "country_name": "Tanzania", "name": "United Kingdom (occupied German East Africa)", "title": "British military occupation (Tanganyika Territory from 1920)", "start_year": 1916, "end_year": 1922, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "Sep 1916", "raw_end": "20 Jul 1922", "type": "Military occupation", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "tanzania-1922-united-kingdom-tanganyika", "country": "tanzania", "country_name": "Tanzania", "name": "United Kingdom (Tanganyika)", "title": "League of Nations mandate (Tanganyika)", "start_year": 1922, "end_year": 1961, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "20 Jul 1922", 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"name": "Benjamin Mkapa", "title": "President", "start_year": 1995, "end_year": 2005, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "23 Nov 1995", "raw_end": "21 Dec 2005", "type": "Term limit", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "tanzania-2005-jakaya-kikwete", "country": "tanzania", "country_name": "Tanzania", "name": "Jakaya Kikwete", "title": "President", "start_year": 2005, "end_year": 2015, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "21 Dec 2005", "raw_end": "5 Nov 2015", "type": "Term limit", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "tanzania-2015-john-magufuli", "country": "tanzania", "country_name": "Tanzania", "name": "John Magufuli", "title": "President", "start_year": 2015, "end_year": 2021, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "5 Nov 2015", "raw_end": "17 Mar 2021", "type": "Died in office", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "tanzania-2021-samia-suluhu-hassan", "country": 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"raw_end": "1900", "type": "Colonial conquest/protectorate", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "contested-frontier", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "togo-1900-germany-togoland", "country": "togo", "country_name": "Togo", "name": "Germany (Togoland)", "title": "Colonial rule (Togoland)", "start_year": 1900, "end_year": 1914, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1900", "raw_end": "1914", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "togo-1914-united-kingdom-france-togoland", "country": "togo", "country_name": "Togo", "name": "United Kingdom / France (Togoland)", "title": "Anglo-French military occupation (provisional partition, pending League mandate)", "start_year": 1914, "end_year": 1922, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1914", "raw_end": "1922", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "togo-1922-united-kingdom-france-togoland", "country": "togo", "country_name": "Togo", "name": "United Kingdom / France (Togoland)", "title": "League of Nations mandate (UN Trust Territory from 1946), split British/French Togoland", "start_year": 1922, "end_year": 1960, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1922", "raw_end": "1960", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "togo-1960-sylvanus-olympio", "country": "togo", "country_name": "Togo", "name": "Sylvanus Olympio", "title": "Prime Minister, then President", "start_year": 1960, "end_year": 1963, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "27 Apr 1960", "raw_end": "13 Jan 1963", "type": "Assassinated in coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "togo-1963-emmanuel-bodjolle", "country": "togo", "country_name": "Togo", "name": "Emmanuel Bodjollé", "title": "Chairman of the Insurrection Committee", "start_year": 1963, "end_year": 1963, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "13 Jan 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"country_name": "Togo", "name": "Gnassingbé Eyadéma", "title": "President", "start_year": 1967, "end_year": 2005, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "14 Apr 1967", "raw_end": "2005", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "togo-2005-faure-gnassingbe", "country": "togo", "country_name": "Togo", "name": "Faure Gnassingbé", "title": "President", "start_year": 2005, "end_year": 2005, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "5 Feb 2005", "raw_end": "25 Feb 2005", "type": "Unconstitutional military installation upon father's death; resigned under international pressure", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "togo-2005-bonfoh-abass", "country": "togo", "country_name": "Togo", "name": "Bonfoh Abass", "title": "President (Interim)", "start_year": 2005, "end_year": 2005, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "25 Feb 2005", "raw_end": "4 May 2005", "type": "Constitutional interim succession (National Assembly Speaker)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "togo-2005-faure-gnassingbe-2", "country": "togo", "country_name": "Togo", "name": "Faure Gnassingbé", "title": "President", "start_year": 2005, "end_year": 2025, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "4 May 2005", "raw_end": "3 May 2025", "type": "Elected (2005, re-elected 2010, 2015, 2020); constitutional system change ended the presidential term", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "togo-2025-faure-gnassingbe", "country": "togo", "country_name": "Togo", "name": "Faure Gnassingbé", "title": "President of the Council of Ministers", "start_year": 2025, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "3 May 2025", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Installed as head of government with full executive power under new parliamentary constitution", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "togo-2025-jean-lucien-savi-de-tove", "country": "togo", "country_name": "Togo", "name": "Jean-Lucien Savi de Tové", "title": "President of the Republic (ceremonial)", "start_year": 2025, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "3 May 2025", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Indirectly elected by the National Assembly and Senate under the new constitution; largely symbolic office", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "tunisia-1800-ottoman-regency-of-tunis-husainid-dynasty", "country": "tunisia", "country_name": "Tunisia", "name": "Ottoman Regency of Tunis (Husainid dynasty)", "title": "Hereditary Ottoman regency (Beys of Tunis)", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1881, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1881", "type": "Ottoman regency (hereditary dynasty)", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "tunisia-1881-france-tunisia", "country": "tunisia", "country_name": "Tunisia", "name": "France (Tunisia)", "title": "Protectorate", "start_year": 1881, "end_year": 1956, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1881", "raw_end": "1956", "type": "Colonial administration", "layer": "colonial", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "tunisia-1956-muhammad-viii-al-amin-lamine-bey", "country": "tunisia", "country_name": "Tunisia", "name": "Muhammad VIII al-Amin (Lamine Bey)", "title": "Bey of Tunis / King of Tunisia", "start_year": 1956, "end_year": 1957, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "20 Mar 1956", "raw_end": "25 Jul 1957", "type": "Hereditary/Deposed", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "tunisia-1957-habib-bourguiba", "country": "tunisia", "country_name": "Tunisia", "name": "Habib Bourguiba", "title": "President", "start_year": 1957, "end_year": 1987, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "25 Jul 1957", "raw_end": "7 Nov 1987", "type": "Deposed", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "tunisia-1987-zine-el-abidine-ben-ali", "country": "tunisia", "country_name": "Tunisia", "name": "Zine El Abidine Ben Ali", "title": "President", "start_year": 1987, "end_year": 2011, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "7 Nov 1987", "raw_end": "14 Jan 2011", "type": "Coup", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "tunisia-2011-fouad-mebazaa", "country": "tunisia", "country_name": "Tunisia", "name": "Fouad Mebazaa", "title": "Acting President", "start_year": 2011, "end_year": 2011, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "15 Jan 2011", "raw_end": "13 Dec 2011", "type": "Succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "tunisia-2011-moncef-marzouki", "country": "tunisia", "country_name": "Tunisia", "name": "Moncef Marzouki", "title": "President", "start_year": 2011, "end_year": 2014, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "13 Dec 2011", "raw_end": "31 Dec 2014", "type": "Elected (by Constituent Assembly)", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "tunisia-2014-beji-caid-essebsi", "country": "tunisia", "country_name": "Tunisia", "name": "Beji Caid Essebsi", "title": "President", "start_year": 2014, "end_year": 2019, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "31 Dec 2014", "raw_end": "25 Jul 2019", "type": "Elected/died in office", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "tunisia-2019-mohamed-ennaceur", "country": "tunisia", "country_name": "Tunisia", "name": "Mohamed Ennaceur", "title": "Acting President", "start_year": 2019, "end_year": 2019, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "25 Jul 2019", "raw_end": "23 Oct 2019", "type": "Succession", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "tunisia-2019-kais-saied", "country": "tunisia", "country_name": "Tunisia", "name": "Kais Saied", "title": "President", "start_year": 2019, "end_year": null, "ongoing": true, "raw_start": "23 Oct 2019", "raw_end": "present", "type": "Elected", "layer": "leader", "precolonial_category": null, "apartheid": false }, { "id": "uganda-1800-buganda-kingdom-dominant-power-bunyoro-in-long-term-decline", "country": "uganda", "country_name": "Uganda", "name": "Buganda Kingdom (dominant power; Bunyoro in long-term decline, Toro breaks away c.1830s)", "title": "Kabaka of Buganda", "start_year": 1800, "end_year": 1856, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1800", "raw_end": "1856", "type": "Dominant centralized kingdom", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": "uganda-1856-buganda-kingdom-under-kabaka-mutesa-i", "country": "uganda", "country_name": "Uganda", "name": "Buganda Kingdom under Kabaka Mutesa I", "title": "Kabaka of Buganda", "start_year": 1856, "end_year": 1884, "ongoing": false, "raw_start": "1856", "raw_end": "1884", "type": "Dominant centralized kingdom", "layer": "precolonial", "precolonial_category": "dominant-polity", "apartheid": false }, { "id": 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